Food insecurity among college students in the United States

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Food insecurity is an issue affecting many American college students. While hunger in the United States affects all age groups, food insecurity seems to be especially prevalent among students. Studies have found that students of color are disproportionately affected. Students can be especially vulnerable to hunger during their first year, as it may be the first time they've lived away from home. The rising cost of education is another driver of food insecurity among students. Experiencing a period of chronic hunger can impact a student's mental health, and can lead to lower academic performance. Measures taken to alleviate hunger among students includes the establishment of food pantries in several US universities.

Causes[edit]

Students, especially first year students, are "uniquely" vulnerable to food insecurity as they transition from a state of dependency (often being looked after by parents) to autonomy. Additionally, the costs involved with higher education have been rising, in some cases faster than peoples ability to pay.[1][2][3]

When entering college, many students are leaving their homes and managing their own finances for the very first time in their lives.[4]  Depending on where they go to school, there may be limited access to affordable and nutritious food, such as in food deserts, making students particularly vulnerable to food insecurity.  Students are often forced to choose between expensive textbooks and school materials and food, leaving many students hungry.  Hunger can distract students from focusing, leading to decreased academic performance, longer time than usual to graduate, and higher rates of depression.[4]  Furthermore, familial financial hardship, ever-rising costs of tuition and housing, and lack of sufficient financial aid –which can be attributed to recent major cuts in states’ budgets for public universities and lack of federal aid –have made food insecurity an increasingly common experience among college students.[5][1] In fact, a study on hunger in US colleges done at the University of California took data from 2006 to 2016 showed that 40% of students experienced food insecurity.[5]

According to a study done by sociologist Katharine Broton at the University of Massachusetts Boston, 27% of students had skipped meals because of food insecurity and 6% did not eat for 1 to 2 days because of limitations such as being in a food desert. [6]

A study done by researcher Danielle Gallegods used the USDA Food Security Module (FFSM) on 810 students at the Metropolitan University in Brisbane, Australia. The findings revealed that one out of every four students experiences food insecurity, which is twice the previously reported rate for  university students and five times that of the general population. Factors contributing to food insecurity  included low income, reliance on government aid, and housing accommodations. Students from food- insecure households were twice as likely to rate their overall health as fair or poor and three times as  likely to have to postpone their studies due to financial constraints. Additionally, at least 80% of these  students reported that their academic performance was affected. [7]

According to a study done by researcher Jaapna Dhillion, L. Katrina Diaz Rosa, Kaitlyn J. Aldaz, and their peers at the University of California, student’s perceptions of available food in the area caused them to have a higher risk of malnutrition and bad eating habits. [8]

Historic injustices based on racial categories have led to students of color having the less resources as  their peers. Government officials targeted low-income and multiethnic communities as locations of toxic waste facilities, further labeling the community as undesirable and making it harder for residents to obtain greater opportunities. Many of the students in community colleges that are food insecure have  experienced racial inequality, lack of healthcare and social services, inadequate housing poverty and  other economic barriers. All of the obstacles prevent students from going to a private institution that has more alternatives to combating food insecurity. The demographics of community colleges play a major  role in the high percentages of students facing food scarcity. [9]

Prevalence[edit]

Food insecurity prevalence was found to be 43.5% in a systematic review of food insecurity among US students in higher education.[3] This prevalence of food insecurity is over twice as high as that reported in United States national households.[10] Data have been collected to estimate prevalence both nationally as well as at specific institutions (two and four year colleges). For example, an Oregon university reported that 59% of their college students experienced food insecurity.[10] where as in a correlational study conducted at the University of Hawaii at Manoa found that 21-24% of their undergraduate students were food-insecure or at risk of food insecurity.[11] Data from a large southwestern university show that 32% of college freshmen, who lived in residence halls, self-reported inconsistent access to food in the past month.[12] According to a 2011 survey of the City University of New York (CUNY) undergraduates, about two in five students reported being food insecure.[13]

Demographics[edit]

A study done by professor of Public Health and author Nicholas Freudenberg examines the demographics of students who may be more likely to be affected by food insecurity. It's been found in a study conducted at the City University of New York that students of color are more likely to be affected by food insecurities. Researchers believe that growing rates of food insecurity in college students are due to an increasing population of low-income college students, higher tuition and insufficient financial assistance.[14] According to a correlational study examining the undergraduate student population from universities in Illinois, African American students were more likely to report being very-low food secure compared to other racial groups.[11] Similarly, the aforementioned study from the University of Hawaii at Manoa found that their undergraduate students, who identified as Hawaiians, Pacific Islanders, Filipinos, and mixed-race, were more likely to be at increased risk of food insecurity compared to Japanese students. In the City University of New York (CUNY), Black and Latino students were 1.5 times more likely to experience food insecurity than White and Asian students.[13] Being a first generation student is another demographic that has been related to increased risk of food insecurity.[15] Other demographics studied at the University of Alabama that have been found to increase risk of food insecurity in college students include receiving financial aid, being financially independent, and being employed.[16] Researchers have speculated that students who live at home with their family are less likely to be food insecure, due to spending less on housing expenditures.[11]

A study done by policy studies professor and president of California State University, Sacramento, J. Luke Wood, found that for White and Asian students, having a low income (defined as $30,000 or less) was a notable factor associated with food insecurity, moreover, white students within this income bracket had an 82% higher likelihood of experiencing food insecurity and Asian students had a 158% higher likelihood. Contrastingly, income was not found to be a big indicator of food insecurity in Black, Latino and multiethnic students. The study additionally concluded that community colleges were far more likely to have a higher percentage of students experiencing food insecurity. Community colleges have a higher percentage of low-income students and students of color.[17]

Effects[edit]

There have been multiple studies regarding the effects that University food deserts have on students. A study conducted by researchers Jaapna Dhillion, L. Katrina Diaz Rios, Kaitlyn J. Aldaz, and their peers, looked into the perception of first-year minority students attending a school in a food desert at the University of California. The aim of the study was to see how the eating habits of the students were  affected by their understanding of healthy food access. They found that students expressed they had  trouble with the adequacy, meaning variety and quality, acceptability with their familiarity and  preferences, affordability and accessibility. The study shows that students were unable to have access to healthy, affordable meals, leaving them with limited options. [8]

Another study was conducted at the University of Alabama by sociologist and author Katharine Broton discusses full time returning students and their food security. 14% of students surveyed expressed that they had low or very low food security and an  additional 20% had marginal food security. The scale that was identified for the specific study showed  that marginal food security included anxiety over food sufficiency and shortage of food, low food security had reports of reduced quality, variety, or desirability of diet, and very low food security which showed  “reports of multiple indications of disrupted eating patterns and reduced food intake”.[6]

Mental health[edit]

College students struggling with access to food are more likely to experience issues with mental health. According to a correlational study examining college freshmen living in residence halls from a large southwestern university, students who were food-insecure, were more likely to self-report higher levels of depression and anxiety, compared to food-secure students.[18] When there isn’t enough food in the body for an extended period amount of time, the student would become fatigued and could experience anxiety, interfering with their concentration in class.[19] It could also lead to lower brain function and can cause emotional distress.[19] When a student is food-insecure, they struggle to have enough money to buy food, leading them to have to settle with unhealthy and improper meals because it’s cheaper. But these meals would probably be highly processed foods which would not only make them physically sick after being consumed for a prolonged amount of time but affect them mentally too.

Academic performance[edit]

When a student is unable to focus or has to worry about when their next meal will be or if they have enough money to last for the rest of the week, their academic performance will decline. Food insecurity increases the odds of being in the lower 10% GPA and lower odds of being in the upper 10% GPA.[20] According to a 2018 study on young adults attending an Appalachian University, the GPA of a food-secure student would be on average of 3.51, while a food-insecure student would be 3.33.[21] This could be because the student who has the average lower GPA must spend money on other items or rent instead of buying food and it affects them mentally and physically. The food-insecure students might have to work multiple part-time jobs and not have time to study, unlike the students who are food-secure and have a support system. Additionally, nutrition would affect a student’s thinking skills, behavior, and health. Inadequate nutrients will infer with the student’s learning process, and they will be unable to concentrate, which will affect their academic performance.[19] On top of the direct impacts of  malnutrition and associated illness on learning there are numerous indirect effects as well. A study was  conducted by professor Rita Bakan to look at the direct effects malnutrition has on learning and lots of side effects were found.  The study was done on rats and showed that food restriction resulted in an interference with cell division and cellular growth patterns and they are left with a deficit in the number of cells in all organs. It’s frequently noted that malnourished individuals tend to display apathy, irritability, and have  difficulty paying attention. Despite the study was conducted on rats, the same result would occur in humans.[22]

Responses[edit]

Supplemental Nutritional Assistance Program (SNAP)[edit]

Colleges have taken steps to address the issue of food insecurity on their campuses –such as food pantries and Supplemental Nutritional Assistance Program (SNAP) application assistance –though commentators have suggested more needs to be done.[5][23][2] The Supplemental Nutritional Assistance Program (SNAP) policies excludes many college students from receiving benefits.[14] SNAP federal policies disproportionately impacts young people and people of color. The Supplemental Nutritional Assistance Program (SNAP) policies excludes many college students from receiving benefits.  This is because when SNAP was first introduced, college students were not the main focus of the program as they were typically from white, middle-class families, under the care of their parents and were young high school graduates without dependents to provide for.[24][25]  To prevent the system and the benefits from being abused, students were excluded from enrolling in SNAP.

A study done by research scientist Rachel Ross at the University of Washington revealed that the student’s lack of use of the SNAP program stem from a few reasons; uncertainty regarding SNAP eligibility criteria, dissatisfaction with  the administrative complexities of applying for Snap assistance, fear regarding immigration status, the  perception that their level of need does not meet the requirements and embarrassment from seeking aid and support. [26] The perceptions of students may be misinformed, but colleges have started to combat this; at Cal State-East Bay, work-study students in the library have  received training to assist peers in signing up for SNAP and other food aid that might be available.[27]

A study conducted by researcher Quin Moore at Pacific University discovered that overall, the students who utilized SNAP’s benefits noticed improvements in their diets. Students in the study expressed that with SNAP they have  gained more energy and possess the ability to perform better academically.[28]

Food pantries[edit]

Researchers have suggested that college campuses examine available and accessible food-related resources to help alleviate students’ food insecurity.[16][15] In 2012, the College and University Food Bank Alliance (CUFBA) identified over 70 campuses where food pantries had been implemented or were under development.[29]

Within the younger generations we have seen much grassroots organizing, such as at UC Berkeley's student-run food pantry, established as a non-profit in 2014.[30] This pantry works with the Alameda Food Bank, with UC Berkeley's student farms, with local donations and some purchases to provide a range of nutritious food for students and university staff. The pantry also offers Calfresh application assistance, emergency housing, a basic needs emergency fund, and case management. This thriving free grocery store supports many on campus and teaches young volunteers and interns the value of community resource pooling and offers experience too students in grassroots community leadership. Foods such as cereal, rice, pasta, fruits, vegetables, peanut butter, oils, eggs, milk, soymilk, almond milk, and bread are provided. Furthermore, efforts to meet all culture’s dietary needs have been made. Foods such as tofu and canned bamboo shoots ensure that the food pantry meets the entire community's needs as best as it can as there is a large Asian community that comes through. While the food pantry aims at direct discourse with those in need over what types of food and of what quantity is needed, it understands that clients are not always wanting to have direct conversations. A new app system was created by students in which, upon exiting the food pantry, the items in one’s cart are scanned and entered into the app’s system in order for inventory to be taken. Through survey methods such as this the food pantry is able to assess the direct needs of its participants. But many students are passionate about the conversations that enable the food pantry to best benefit the community, and so the space is created with an overwhelming sense of welcome and respect with a board where students can write on post its for what produce or changes they wish to see in the pantry. The relief that the food pantry offers helps many people make it from one paycheck to another when their funds aren’t enough to cover the board of their needs. The issue with providing direct resource aid is that it creates a band-aid effect. The relief only lasts a certain amount of time until the food has run out. Food pantries specifically engage with social power, as the focus is to work within the community with fellow volunteers to provide for the rest of that very same community.[31] Action that promotes human rights, the right to nutrition.

While food pantries can provide urgent, short-term resources, they are not a sustainable, long-term solution for students.  College food pantries are usually managed by volunteers and have limited budgets and resources; as a result, they do not always have nutritious food available.[5]  Furthermore, although many students are aware of these campus pantries, some may be reluctant to actually use this resource because of the stigma attached to them.[1][32] A studied showed that on campuses with food pantries, on average, only about half of the student population know of the pantry and only about one fourth of food-insecure students use the pantry.[1]

Community Assistance Programs[edit]

Community based assistance programs, like food pantries, can cater to a large number of students with minimal effort. With the ability to be operated by a group of students, faculty, and staff volunteers, they can obtain materials and aid from a multitude of organizations in the community and within the school.[33]

Cal State-East Bay collaborates with community organizations to address food insecurity on campus. They receive food and supplies from local food banks to stock their pantry, they run Cooking Matters, an organization that offers guidance on preparing affordable and nutritious meals, and they have CalFresh, an initiative that provides training to students enrolling in SNAP. Additionally, Swipe Out Hunger allows students to donate unused meal swipes for peers who struggle with food scarcity.[27]

Food Drives[edit]

Continuous or weekly food drives aid in combating food insecurity on college campuses.[34] Donations from local churches, organizations and farms provide nutritious food in an accessible manner. Food banks and drives address food insecurity, however a study on food banks done by the  Journal of Community Health shows they may not always provide a sufficient supply of nutrient-rich foods. The study also found that they improve overall food security when the correct resources are  provided, they have access to perishable food groups, and they effectively address the specific needs of the community. [35]

A study done by anthropologist Nicole D Peterson at the University of North Carolina looked into the barriers of food security on college campuses. 60% of the students surveyed were food insecure to some degree and looked for alternatives on campus, such as the local churches’ food drives. Food drives were appealing because financial limitations were found to be one of the main aspects contributing to food insecurity on campus so students looked for alternatives free of cost. [36]

Community and College-based Farming Initiatives[edit]

Community and college-based farming initiatives work to link universities with nearby agricultural production and enhancing meal quality and nutrition. Healthy and fresh foods are collected to provide students and faculty with convenient and affordable meal options in dining halls, restaurants, events and any other food provider on campus. Some programs have classes and lessons in nutrition and eating a balanced diet available for those who are interested. Journalist Diane Harris explains that “The goal of these set of FTI {farm-to-institution} activities is to provide a tangible connection between food and its production and, in turn, highlight the freshness and quality of local food as a means of stimulating consumption of healthy foods, including fruits and vegetables.”[37] Students are given the opportunity to work on these farming initiatives and the food is then available to those who may need it on campus through food pantries, farmers markets, and dining halls. [38]

The Rutgers New-Brunswick campus which has the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station and Rutgers Cooperative Extension hosts several farming operations, including the Rutgers Gardens Student Farm. Starting in 2019, the farm initiated a practice of donating a third of its harvest to the local pantry, which is free for students, and it ended up equating to more than $12,000 worth of fresh produce delivered weekly and has helped over 800 food insecure students.[38]

Lafayette College’s LaFarm Community Garden and Working Farm aims to be a place centered around education, cultivation and farming, exploration and fostering a sense of community, according to a study done by Drew Beyer in a STARTS assessment of Lafayette College. They supply the dining halls and market with healthy fruits and vegetables, employing eco-friendly and local methods. Students at Lafayette College have the option to work on LaFarm making money to combat food insecurity as well.[39]

See also[edit]

Notes and references[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d El Zein, Aseel; Shelnutt, Karla P.; Colby, Sarah; Vilaro, Melissa J.; Zhou, Wenjun; Greene, Geoffrey; Olfert, Melissa D.; Riggsbee, Kristin; Morrell, Jesse Stabile; Mathews, Anne E. (December 2019). "Prevalence and correlates of food insecurity among U.S. college students: a multi-institutional study". BMC Public Health. 19 (1): 660. doi:10.1186/s12889-019-6943-6. PMC 6542079. PMID 31142305.
  2. ^ a b Pedersen, Traci (13 August 2019). "Food Insecurity Common Among US College Students". Psych Central. Archived from the original on 13 August 2019.
  3. ^ a b Nazmi, Aydin; Martinez, Suzanna; Byrd, Ajani; Robinson, Derrick; Bianco, Stephanie; Maguire, Jennifer; Crutchfield, Rashida M.; Condron, Kelly; Ritchie, Lorrene (3 September 2019). "A systematic review of food insecurity among US students in higher education". Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition. 14 (5): 725–740. doi:10.1080/19320248.2018.1484316. S2CID 158506646.
  4. ^ a b Martinez, Suzanna M.; Webb, Karen; Frongillo, Edward A.; Ritchie, Lorrene D. (2 January 2018). "Food insecurity in California's public university system: What are the risk factors?". Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition. 13 (1): 1–18. doi:10.1080/19320248.2017.1374901. S2CID 158485075.
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  6. ^ a b Broton, Katharine M., and Sara Goldrick-Rab. “Going Without: An Exploration of Food and Housing Insecurity Among Undergraduates.” Educational Researcher, vol. 47, no. 2, 2018, pp. 121–33. JSTOR,  http://www.jstor.org/stable/44971893. Accessed 10 Apr. 2024
  7. ^ Gallegos, Danielle, et al. “Food Insecurity: Is It an Issue among Tertiary Students?” Higher Education, vol. 67, no. 5, 2014, pp. 497–510. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43648671. Accessed 11 Apr. 2024
  8. ^ a b Dhillon, Jaapna, et al. “We Don’t Have a Lot of Healthy Options: Food Environment Perceptions of First-Year, Minority College Students Attending a Food Desert Campus.” NUTRIENTS, vol. 11, no. 4, Apr. 2019, p. 816. EBSCOhost, https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11040816
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  11. ^ a b c Pia Chaparro, M; Zaghloul, Sahar S; Holck, Peter; Dobbs, Joannie (November 2009). "Food insecurity prevalence among college students at the University of Hawai'i at Mānoa". Public Health Nutrition. 12 (11): 2097–2103. doi:10.1017/S1368980009990735. PMID 19650961.
  12. ^ 1.    Bruening, Meg; Brennhofer, Stephanie; van Woerden, Irene; Todd, Michael; Laska, Melissa (September 2016). "Factors Related to the High Rates of Food Insecurity among Diverse, Urban College Freshmen" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5520984). Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 116 (9): 1450–1457. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2016.04.004 (https://d oi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jand.2016.04.004). PMC 5520984 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC5520984). PMID 27212147 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27212147)
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  14. ^ a b Freudenberg, Nicholas; Goldrick-Rab, Sara; Poppendieck, Janet (December 2019). "College Students and SNAP: The New Face of Food Insecurity in the United States". American Journal of Public Health. 109 (12): 1652–1658. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2019.305332. PMC 6836795. PMID 31622149.
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  16. ^ a b Gaines A, Robb CA, Knol LL, Sickler S (July 2014). "Examining the role of financial factors, resources and skills in predicting food security status among college students: Food security and resource adequacy". International Journal of Consumer Studies. 38 (4): 374–384. doi:10.1111/ijcs.12110. S2CID 143089982.
  17. ^ Wood, J. Luke, and Frank Harris. “Experiences With ‘Acute’ Food Insecurity Among College Students.”  Educational Researcher, vol. 47, no. 2, 2018, pp. 142–45. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44971895. Accessed 5 Mar.  2024
  18. ^ Bruening, Meg; Brennhofer, Stephanie; van Woerden, Irene; Todd, Michael; Laska, Melissa (September 2016). "Factors Related to the High Rates of Food Insecurity among Diverse, Urban College Freshmen". Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 116 (9): 1450–1457. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2016.04.004. PMC 5520984. PMID 27212147.
  19. ^ a b c Ahmad, Nor Syaza Sofiah; Sulaiman, Norhasmah; Sabri, Mohamad Fazli (January 2021). "Food Insecurity: Is It a Threat to University Students' Well-Being and Success?". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 18 (11): 5627. doi:10.3390/ijerph18115627. PMC 8197461. PMID 34070321.
  20. ^ Weaver, Robert R.; Vaughn, Nicole A.; Hendricks, Sean P.; McPherson-Myers, Penny E.; Jia, Qian; Willis, Shari L.; Rescigno, Kevin P. (2 October 2020). "University student food insecurity and academic performance". Journal of American College Health. 68 (7): 727–733. doi:10.1080/07448481.2019.1600522. PMID 31063031. S2CID 146810844.
  21. ^ Hagedorn, Rebecca; Olfert, Melissa (2018). "Food Insecurity and Behavioral Characteristics for Academic Success in Young Adults Attending an Appalachian University". Nutrients. 10 (3): 361. doi:10.3390/nu10030361. PMC 5872779. PMID 29547533.
  22. ^ Bakan, Rita. “Malnutrition and Learning.” The Phi Delta Kappan, vol. 51, no. 10, 1970, pp. 527–30. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20372750. Accessed 6 Mar. 2024
  23. ^ Moon, Emily (28 June 2019). "Half of College Students Are Food Insecure. Are Universities Doing Enough to Help Them?". Pacific Standard.
  24. ^ Stribling, Hanna F (2016). The supplemental nutrition assistance program: How does CalFresh work for college students in California? A policy analysis (Thesis). OCLC 953801692. ProQuest 1783580488.
  25. ^ Fu, Jessica (10 January 2019). "How an outdated law is leaving millions of low-income college students hungry". The Counter.
  26. ^ Ross, Rachel. “College Students’ Perceptions of SNAP and Strategies to Increase Participation.” Nutritional Sciences Program. University of Washington, https://foodsystems.uw.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Ross-Rachel- Capstone-AUT-2021.pdf
  27. ^ a b Wood, Lana. "Empty shelves: How your academic library can address food insecurity." College & Research Libraries News [Online], 81.7 (2020): 322. Web. 15 Apr. 2024
  28. ^ Moore, Quin. "Student Attitudes and Usage of the Supplemental Nutritional Assistance Program (SNAP)." (2014)
  29. ^ Cady, Clare L. (1 January 2014). "Food Insecurity as a Student Issue". Journal of College and Character. 15 (4). doi:10.1515/jcc-2014-0031. S2CID 145384218.
  30. ^ Chang, Momo (2018). "Inside UC Berkeley's Food Pantry".
  31. ^ forefront group (2022). "Food insecurity on college campuses: The invisible epidemic". doi:10.1377/forefront.20220127.264905. S2CID 246448303.
  32. ^ Caplan, Pat (February 2016). "Big society or broken society?: Food banks in the UK". Anthropology Today. 32 (1): 5–9. doi:10.1111/1467-8322.12223.
  33. ^ Buch, Kim, et al. “A University-Community Partnership to Combat Food
  34. ^ Henry, Lisa. "Understanding food insecurity among college students: Experience, motivation, and local solutions." Annals of Anthropological Practice 41.1 (2017): 6-19
  35. ^ Bazerghi, Chantelle, Fiona H. McKay, and Matthew Dunn. "The role of food banks in addressing food insecurity: a systematic review." Journal of community health 41 (2016): 732-740
  36. ^ Peterson, Nicole D., and Andrea Freidus. "More than money: Barriers to food security on a college campus." Culture, Agriculture, Food and Environment 42.2 (2020): 125-137
  37. ^ Harris, Diane, et al. "Farm to institution: Creating access to healthy local and regional foods." Advances in Nutrition 3.3(2012): 343-349
  38. ^ a b Cuite, Cara L., et al. "Farm-based programming for college students experiencing food insecurity." The  Journal of Extension 58.6 (2020): 18
  39. ^ Beyer, Drew, et al. "STARS Assessment, Lafayette College."
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