Turkish alphabet reform

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The Turkish alphabet reform (Turkish: Harf Devrimi or Harf İnkılâbı), is the general term used to refer to the process of adopting and applying a new alphabet in Turkey, which occurred with the enactment of Law No. 1353 on "Acceptance and Application of Turkish Letters" on 1 November 1928. The law was published in the Official Gazette on 3 November 1928, and came into effect on that day. With the approval of this law, the validity of the Ottoman Turkish alphabet, which was based on Arabic script, came to an end, and the modern Turkish alphabet based on Latin script was introduced.

The Turkish alphabet differs somewhat from the alphabets used in other languages that use the Latin script. It includes letters modified to represent the sounds of the Turkish language (e.g. Ç, Ö, Ü), including some theretofore unused in other languages (Ş, Ğ, contrasting dotted and undotted İ / I). The pronunciation of some the letters in the Turkish alphabet also differs from the pronunciation of said letters in most other languages using the Latin alphabet. For example, the pronunciation of the letter C in the Turkish alphabet is /d͡ʒ/, the equivalent of J in English, whereas in the English alphabet, it represents the /k/ or /s/ sound.[1][page needed]

History[edit]

Mustafa Kemal introducing the new Turkish alphabet to the people of Kayseri. 20 September 1928.
A cartoon published by Ramiz Gökçe in Akbaba on 13 August 1928, depicting the reformist period.
Two Turks exploring the new alphabet displayed on the poster outside the municipal building, 1928.

Turks, since the 10th century, along with the adoption of Islam, also embraced the Arabic script (formerly considered an indispensable element of Islam) by adapting it to the Turkish phonology. Over the following 900 years, both western (Ottoman) and eastern dialects of Turkish were written using a modified form of the Arabic script.

Year Literacy rate
1923 2.5%[2]
19271 10.5%[3] (1927 official census)
19352 20.4%[4] (1935 census)

1 Census data from one year before the alphabet reform
2 Seven years after the introduction of the new Turkish alphabet

In the Ottoman Empire, proposals for alphabet reform began to be heard from the mid-19th century onwards. These proposals were divided into two main categories:

  • Those advocating for the revision of the Arabic script
  • Those advocating for the adoption of the Latin script

Reasons for the alphabet reform[edit]

A group of children exploring a poster hung on a tree to help people learn the new alphabet, 1930.

One of the most important reasons for the alphabet reform is the belief that the Arabic script was not suitable for the Turkish language.[5][6] The main argument of those who advocated revising the Arabic script was that it was inadequate in representing the vowel sounds of Turkish. Views stating that the Arabic script was not suitable for Turkish and that at least a revision of the alphabet was necessary have been expressed by many individuals throughout history. One of the first to express the inadequacy of the Arabic script was Kâtip Çelebi.[7] During the Tanzimat period, Ahmed Cevdet Pasha suggested the need for a new writing system to represent sounds that could not be expressed with the Arabic script.[8] In 1851, Münif Pasha stated that reading and writing with Arabic letters was difficult and that education could not be properly conducted, thus emphasizing the need for reform.[8] Intellectuals such as İbrahim Şinasi, Namık Kemal, Ali Suavi, Yenişehirli Avni, Ziya Gökalp, Şemsettin Sami, Ebüzziya Tevfik, Feraizcizade Mehmet Şakir and Ispartalı Hakkı Bey also expressed their views on the problems with the alphabet. The fact that political figures like Enver Pasha also made efforts regarding the alphabet issue (Enveriye) is evidence of a problem and a search for a solution. Although there were different opinions regarding whether to adopt the Latin script or make revisions to the existing alphabet, most people agreed on the incompatibility and problems of the Arabic script with Turkish. These views continued after the proclamation of the republic and formed the basis of the alphabet reform.

The spelling confusion arising from this problem was felt more with the widespread use of printed press and official school books. Efforts to create a standard Turkish dictionary from the 1870s also brought the issue of spelling to the agenda.

Another reason is the belief that the Arabic script, due to its problems, hindered education and left the people illiterate. Milaslı İsmail Hakkı Bey, although completely opposed to the Latin alphabet, stated that without the alphabet revision according to the century, the progress would not be possible, and with the revision, progress like that of the Japanese would be possible. Celal Nuri also said "People cannot easily learn these letters and what is written with them".[9] Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın also said "We cannot reduce illiteracy in our country. Because our alphabet prevents it".[10]

Reasons for adopting the Latin script[edit]

  1. Difficulty in spelling due to the absence of vowels in the Arabic alphabet: The Arabic letter wāw (و) represented the sounds V, O, Ö, U, Ü; the letter yāʼ (ﻱ) represented the sounds Y, I, and İ.
  2. Confusion caused by some letters representing multiple sounds. For example, kāf (كـ) letter could represent the sounds K, G, N, and occasionally Y.
  3. Unnecessary existence of multiple D, H, S, K, T, Z sounds in the Arabic alphabet for Istanbul Turkish, which do not create distinction in meaning: For example, the dāl (ﺩ‎) and dād (ض) letters both represent the D sound, and ḥāʾ (ح) and ḥāʾ (خ) represent the H sound.
  4. Method of separating letters during the reform of the Arabic letters, known as hurûf-ı munfasıla, was tried. The belief that an alphabet in which letters are separated was easier to learn.
  5. Difficulty of learning when letters are written differently at the beginning, middle, and end of a word in the Arabic alphabet.
  6. Belief that the Latin alphabet would greatly facilitate education.
  7. Decision made at the First All-Union Turkological Congress in Baku to adopt the Latin script instead of Arabic script for all Turkic languages. It is known that Atatürk closely followed this congress.[11]
  8. Popularity gained by newspapers and books printed in Greek and Armenian alphabets in Istanbul and Anatolia in the late 19th century. The widespread use of these publications led to the idea that Turkish could be written in scripts other than Arabic becoming widespread.
  9. Influence of the adoption of the Latin-based Albanian alphabet in the 1908-1911 period and the adoption of the Latin alphabet by Azerbaijan in 1922 on Turkish intellectuals.
  10. Use of the Latin alphabet by Turkic states in the Soviet Union. Turkey switched to the Latin alphabet to get closer to the Turkic world and to use a common alphabet. However, later, during the Stalinist era, the Soviet Union forced Turkic states to switch to the Cyrillic script to sever the connection between Turkey and the Turkic republics. After the dissolution of the USSR in 1991, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Kazakhstan switched back to the Latin alphabet. The alphabet reform in Turkey aimed to create a writing system compatible with Turkic languages and to use a common alphabet.[12]
  11. Desire to facilitate and develop relations with Europe.
  12. Unreasonableness of accepting any alphabet other than the Latin alphabet, which is the most widespread alphabet in the world, such as Cyrillic script or Chinese characters.
  13. From the 1850s-60s onwards, the entire Turkish intellectual class knew French and sometimes used it in their correspondence among themselves. With the spread of telegraphy, a form of Turkish written in the Latin alphabet and according to French spelling also became part of daily life. The habit of using this writing was due to the use of this script in shop signs and commercial advertisements in cosmopolitan environments such as Beyoğlu, Thessaloniki and İzmir.
  14. During the Second Constitutional Era, efforts to define Turkish national identity independently from Islam gained traction, particularly among intellectuals close to the Committee of Union and Progress. Some individuals regarded the Arabic script as an inseparable part of Islamic culture, hence abandoning this script was seen as a step toward secularizing Turkish national identity and revealing its inherent essence.

Early reform proposals[edit]

The idea of adapting the Latin script to Turkish was first proposed in the 1860s by Azerbaijani Mirza Fatali Akhundov. Akhundov also prepared an alphabet based on the Cyrillic script.[13]

The adoption of a new Albanian alphabet based on Latin script between 1908 and 1911 sparked intense debates among Turkish intellectuals. In 1911, during a heated debate sparked by Islamic scholars in Elbasan claiming that Latin script was contrary to Sharia law, Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın not only defended the Latin-based Albanian alphabet but also suggested that Turks should do the same.[14] In 1911, the Albanian branch of the Committee of Union and Progress accepted the Latin-based alphabet.

In 1914, five unsigned articles published in the journal "Hürriyet-i Fikriye" by Kılıçzade Hakkı proposed the gradual adoption of Latin letters, arguing that this change was inevitable. However, the journal was banned by the Committee of Union and Progress government due to these articles.[15]

The first Turkish newspaper printed in Latin alphabet was published in Manastir-Bitola in 1911. Named "Eças" and pronounced "esas" in French spelling, this newspaper was published on Saturdays by Zekeriya Sami Efendi, but only a few issues have survived to the present day.

Atatürk and the alphabet reform[edit]

A book used to teach the modern Turkish alphabet alongside a book used to teach the Ottoman Turkish alphabet in the 1930s, displayed at the Republic Museum.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk became interested in this issue during his time in Syria between 1905 and 1907. In 1922, Atatürk discussed this issue with Halide Edib Adıvar and emphasized that such a change would require strict measures.[16]

In September 1922, during a meeting attended by Istanbul press members, Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın asked Atatürk why they did not accept the Latin script. Atatürk responded "It's not the right time yet". A similar proposal was made at the İzmir Economic Congress in 1923, but it was rejected by the congress president, Kâzım Karabekir, on the grounds that it would harm the unity of Islam. However, the discussion received widespread coverage in the press.[17]

On 28 May 1928, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey passed a law allowing the use of international numerals in official institutions and organizations starting from 1 June 1928. There was no significant reaction to this law. Around the same time, a commission was established for the alphabet reform.

One of the issues discussed by the commission was the proposal to replace the old "qāf" (ق) and "kāf" (كـ) letters in the Arabic script with "Q" and "K" letters in the new Turkish alphabet, respectively. However, this proposal was rejected by Atatürk, and the letter "q" was removed from the alphabet. According to Falih Rıfkı Atay, who was a member of the commission, Atatürk insisted on not wasting time and stated, "This will either be done in three months or never".[18] After the new Turkish alphabet was completed, Atatürk introduced the letters to attendees at the Republican People's Party gala in Gülhane on 9 August 1928.[19] On 11 August, the new alphabet was introduced to presidential staff and members of parliament, and on 15 August, it was introduced to university professors and writers. In August and September, Atatürk introduced the new alphabet to the public in different cities. At the end of this process, changes were made based on the commission's recommendations, such as omitting the short dash used to add certain suffixes to the word root and adding circumflexes.

From October 8 to 25, 1928, all government officials underwent an examination on the use of the new letters.

Criticism[edit]

In 2019, during a commemoration program for Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan claimed in his speech that the literacy rate in the Ottoman Empire was higher than 50%, surpassing countries like Russia and Italy at the time. He further asserted that the alphabet reform led to a decline in literacy rates and that "everything was reset" with the alphabet reform. These statements were criticized by various academics and media organizations as being inaccurate.[20][21] The phrase "We were made ignorant overnight!" (Turkish: Bir gecede cahil kaldık!) has become a common expression used by critics of the alphabet reform.[22]

Responding to these criticisms, educators pointed out that at the time of the alphabet reform, only about 6-7% of the Muslim population was literate, refuting the notion that 94% of the population became illiterate overnight. They argued that Ottoman society was primarily oral rather than written, and thus, there was no significant loss in societal memory. Additionally, they emphasized that those who were literate before the alphabet reform quickly adapted to the new alphabet, debunking claims of erasure of societal memory or loss of language proficiency.[23]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ "1030" (PDF). Retrieved 14 July 2019.
  2. ^ Turgut Özakman claims that this rate is even lower, dropping to 0.7% in women.
  3. ^ "Arşivlenmiş kopya". Archived from the original on 4 November 2012. Retrieved 8 November 2010.
  4. ^ "Arşivlenmiş kopya". Archived from the original on 4 November 2018. Retrieved 29 January 2010.
  5. ^ "Harf Devrimi". Habertürk (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 16 October 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
  6. ^ "90.Yılında Harf Devrimi… Neden Yapıldı, Sonuçları Ne Oldu? « Kemalist Portal" (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
  7. ^ Albayrak, Mustafa (1 April 1989). "Yeni Türk Harflerinin Kabulü Öncesinde Halk Eğitimi Ve Yazı Değişimi Konusunda Türk Kamuoyunda Bazı Tartışmalar Ve Millet Mekteplerinin Açılması 1862 1928". Atatürk Yolu Dergisi (in Turkish). 1 (04): -. doi:10.1501/Tite_0000000230. ISSN 1303-5290. Archived from the original on 15 May 2021. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
  8. ^ a b Kale, Metin (3 January 1999). "Harf Devrimi". Erdem (in Turkish). 11 (33): 811–831. ISSN 1010-867X.[dead link]
  9. ^ Uyanik, Ercan; Çam, İrfan Davut (1 December 2014). "Arap Elifbası'ndan Latin Alfabesine Geçiş Sürecinde Garpçı Söylemler". Çağdaş Türkiye Tarihi Araştırmaları Dergisi. 14 (29): 189–221. ISSN 1300-0756.[dead link]
  10. ^ "İşte Atatürk | Atatürk Hakkında Bilmek İstediğiniz Herşey". İşte Atatürk (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 28 February 2019. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
  11. ^ "Türk Dünyasında Latin Alfabesine Geçiş Süreci (Geçmişten Günümüze) - Ümit Özgür DEMİRCİ". www.turkyurdu.com.tr. Archived from the original on 23 July 2020. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
  12. ^ "Arşivlenmiş kopya". Archived from the original on 22 December 2014. Retrieved 21 December 2014.
  13. ^ Agah Sırrı Levend (1972) 'Türk Dili'nde Gelişme ve Sadeleşme Evreleri. Ankara. p. 156.
  14. ^ G. L. Lewis (1999). Türk Cumhuriyeti'nde Bir Uygarlık Ögesi Olarak Atatürk'ün Dil Devrimi. Jacob M. Landau (Yay. Haz.) (1999). Atatürk ve Türkiye'nin Modernleşmesi, Istanbul: Sarmal, ISBN 975-8304-18-6 (p. 251-272). p. 254.
  15. ^ G. L. Lewis, a.g.e., p.254.
  16. ^ Halide Edib Adıvar (1962). Türk'ün Ateşle İmtihanı. Istanbul. p. 294.
  17. ^ G. L. Lewis, a.g.e., p.255.
  18. ^ Falih Rıfkı Atay (1969). Çankaya. Istanbul. p. 440
  19. ^ G. L. Lewis, a.g.e., p.257.
  20. ^ Çarık, Şenol. "Osmanlı'da okur yazarlık ne kadardı". odatv (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 11 July 2020. Retrieved 19 October 2020.
  21. ^ "'Harf Devrimi'yle her şey sıfırlandı' diyen Erdoğan'ı TÜİK arşivi yalanladı". Yeni Çağ Gazetesi (in Turkish). 10 November 2019. Archived from the original on 11 November 2019. Retrieved 19 October 2020.
  22. ^ "Ülkücü isimden "bir gecede cahil kaldık" diyenlere tepki: "Ulan zaten cahildin"". odatv (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 28 November 2020. Retrieved 19 October 2020.
  23. ^ 29 Kasım 2019 tarihli Rıfat Okçabol yazısı Archived 2023-11-09 at the Wayback Machine