Армия Древней Македонии

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Армия Древней Македонии
Участник Восстание Македонии, Балканская кампания Александра, Войны Александра Македонского
Hypaspist.jpg Гипаспист в световой технике (современная реконструкция Дж. Шумате)
ЛидерыФилипп II Македонский, Александр III Македония
Штаб-квартираПелла, Вавилон
Район операцийГреция, Иллирия, Фракия, Дельта Дуная, Малая Азия, Сирия, Финикия, Иудея, Египет, Месопотамия, Вавилония, Персия, Согдиана, Бактрия, Пенджаб, Индия
Размер32,000+ - полевая армия для вторжения Александра Великого в империю Ахеменидов - согласно Диодору Сицилийскому. Эта цифра колебалась, например, в Гавгамеле, Александр командовал не менее 47 000 солдат.
ЧастьКоролевство Македонское
СоюзникиКоринфская лига.
Противник (-и)Иллирийцы, фракийцы, Фокида, Афины, Фивы, Спарта, Империя Ахеменидов, Королевство Порус, Скифы.
Битвы и войныБитва при Крокус-Поле, Битва при Херонеи, Битва при Фивах, Битва при Гранике, Битва при Иссе, Битва при Гавгамеле, Битва при Гидаспе
Стало . Армии диадохов - эллинистических армий (Македонская армия антигонидов, армия Селевкидов, птолемеевская армия )

армия царства Македонии была одной из величайших военных сил древнего мира. Она была создана и сделана грозной королем Филиппом II Македонским ; раньше армия Македонии была мало в политике греческого мира, и Македония считалась второстепенной державой.

Последние инновации в оружии и тактике были приняты и усовершенствованы Филиппом II, и он создал уникально гибкую и эффективную армию. Введя военную службу в качестве постоянного занятия, Филипп смог регулярно тренировать своих людей, обеспечивая единство и сплоченность своих рядов. В кратчайшие сроки это привело к созданию одной из лучших военных машин древнего мира. Тактические усовершенствования включали последние разработки в использовании традиционной греческой фаланги, сделанные такими людьми, как Эпаминонд из Фив и Ификрат из Афин. Филипп II усовершенствовал этих военных новаторов, используя более глубокую фалангу Эпаминонда и комбинацию более длинного копья, меньшего и легкого щита Ификрата. Однако македонский царь также вводил новшества; он ввел использование более длинного копья, двуручной пики. Македонская пика, сарисса, давала своему владельцу множество преимуществ как в нападении, так и в защите. Впервые в греческой войнекавалерия стала решающим оружием в битве. Македонская армия усовершенствовала координацию различных типов войск, ранний пример общевойсковой тактики - фаланга тяжелой пехоты, стрелковая пехота, лучники, легкая кавалерия и тяжелая кавалерия и осадные машины были задействованы в бою; каждый тип войск используется для достижения своих особых преимуществ и создает синергию взаимной поддержки.

Новая македонская армия представляла собой объединение разных сил. Македонцы и другие греки (особенно фессалийская кавалерия) и широкий круг наемников со всего Эгейского и Балкан были наняты Филиппом. К 338 г. до н. Э. Более половины армии для его запланированного вторжения в империю Ахеменидов из Персии прибыло из-за пределов Македонии - со всех концов греческий мир и соседние варварские племена, такие как иллирийцы, пеониане и фракийцы. После смерти Филиппа его преемник,Александр Македонский, использовал армию для завоевания империи Ахеменидов.

К сожалению, большинство основных исторических источников для этого периода было утеряно. Как следствие, наука в значительной степени зависит от работ Диодора Сицилийского и Арриана, а также неполных сочинений Курция, которые жили на столетия позже, чем события, которые они описывают.

Содержание

  • 1 Происхождение
  • 2 Типы войск и организация отрядов
    • 2.1 Тяжелая кавалерия
      • 2.1.1 Конница компаньонов
      • 2.1.2 Фессалийская кавалерия
      • 2.1. 3 Другая греческая кавалерия
    • 2.2 Легкая кавалерия
      • 2.2.1 Продромои / Сариссофоры (кавалерийское подразделение)
      • 2.2.2 Пеонийская кавалерия
      • 2.2.3 Фракийская кавалерия
      • 2.2.4 Конные лучники
    • 2.3 Тяжелая пехота
      • 2.3.1 Пехотинцы
      • 2.3.2 Гипасписты
      • 2.3.3 Греческие гоплиты
    • 2.4 Легкая пехота
      • 2.4.1 Пельтасты
      • 2.4.2 Лучники
  • 3 Использование азиатских солдат под командованием Ала Exander the Great
  • 4 Оружие и доспехи
    • 4.1 Оружие
    • 4.2 Шлемы
    • 4.3 Бронежилет
    • 4.4 Щиты
  • 5 Осадная война
    • 5.1 Артиллерия
    • 5.2 Другие осадные машины
  • 6 Тактика боя
  • 7 Отклонение
  • 8 См. Также
  • 9 Примечания
  • 10 Ссылки
    • 10.1 Первичная
    • 10.2 Вторичная
  • 11 Дополнительная литература
  • 12 Внешние ссылки

Происхождение

Филипп II Македонский - римский медальон с изображением македонского царя.

Если бы Филипп II Македонский не был отцом Александра Великого, он был бы более широко известен как первоклассный военный новатор, тактик и стратег, а также как непревзойденный политик. Завоевания Александра были бы невозможны без армии, созданной его отцом. македонцы, считавшиеся полуварварскими у некоторых столичных греков, были воинственным народом; они много пили без воды (отличительная черта варвара), и ни один юноша не считался годным сидеть с мужчинами за столом,пока он не убил пешим копьем кабана.

Когда Филипп взял под свой контроль Македонию, это было отсталое государство на окраине греческого мира, которое окружали его традиционные враги: иллирийцы, пеонийцы и фракийцы. Основной структурой армии, унаследованной Филиппом II, было разделение сопутствующей кавалерии (hetairoi ) от пеших товарищей (pezhetairoi ), дополненных различными союзными войсками, иностранными наемными солдатами, и наемники. Пешие товарищи существовали, вероятно, со времен правления Александра I Македонского, в то время как македонские войска входят в историю Геродота как подданные Персидской империи. греки в битве при Платеях в 479 г. до н. э. Македонская кавалерия, носившая мускулистые кирасы, стала известна в Греции во время и после своего участия в Пелопоннесской войне (431–404 до н.э.), временами выступая на стороне Афин или Спарта и дополнены местной греческой пехотой вместо того, чтобы полагаться на македонскую пехоту. Македонская пехота в этот период состояла из плохо обученных пастухов и земледельцев, в то время как кавалерия состояла из дворян, жаждущих славы. На вырезанном на камне рельефе из Пеллы в начале IV века до н.э. изображен македонский гоплит пехотинец в шлеме пилоса и с коротким мечом, что свидетельствует о явном спартанском влиянии на Македонская армия до Филиппа II.

Николай Секунда утверждает, что в начале правления Филиппа II в 359 г. до н.э. македонская армия состояла из 10000 пехотинцев и 600 кавалеристов, последняя цифра аналогична той, что была зафиксирована для V века. ДО Н.Э. Однако Малкольм Эррингтон предупреждает, что к любым данным древних авторов о размерах македонских войск следует относиться с определенной долей скептицизма, поскольку современные историки очень мало средств, с помощью которых могутподтвердить их достоверность (и, возможно, они могли быть ниже или даже ниже). выше, чем указано).

Мозаика Александра, показывающая битву при Иссе ; римская копия эллинистической живописи, ок. 100 г. до н. Э.

Первым достижением Филиппа было объединение Македонии через свою армию. Он собрал войска и сделал свою армию мощным богатством, славы и власти в стране; непослушные вожди Македонии стали офицерами и элитными кавалеристами армии, горские крестьяне стали пехотинцами. Филипп старался держать их всегда под ружьем и либо драться, либо тренироваться. Маневры и учения превратились в соревнования, и свирепые македонцы соперничали друг с другом, чтобы добиться превосходства.

В качестве политической противовеса корни македонской империи, который он завоевал или конфисковал у своих своих «личных клиентов», которые также служили армейскими офицерами или в более раннем тессалийском стиле боевых действий подчеркивается использование копий. Фессалийская кавалерия была известна своим использованием ромбовидных образований, которые, как говорят, были разработаны фессалийским Тагосом (главой Фессалийского союза) Ясоном Ферским. Это построение было очень эффективным для маневрирования, поскольку позволяло эскадрилье менять направление на скорости, сохраняя при этом сплоченность. Цифры, указанные для вторжения Александра в Персидскую империю, включают 1800 таких людей. Это число не превысило бы 2000. Как правило, им доверяли оборонительную роль по защите левого фланга от вражеской кавалерии, что позволяло нанести решающую атаку справа. В этой роли они часто сталкивались с огромным сопротивлением. В Иссе и Гавгамеле фессалийцы выдержали атаку персидской кавалерии, хотя и значительно уступали в численности.

В Экбатане фессалийцы с армией Александра были расформированы и отправлены домой. Некоторые остались с армией в качестве наемников, но их тоже отправили домой годспустя, когда армия достигла реки Окс.

Другая греческая кавалерия

Греческие государства были союзниками или, точнее, находились под властью гегемония Македонии обеспечивала контингенты тяжелой кавалерии, а македонские цари нанимали наемников того же происхождения. В начале своего похода на Персию у Александра было 600 греческих кавалеристов, вероятно, организованных в 5 илаев. Эти кавалеристы были бы вооружены так же, как фессалийцы и сподвижники, но они располагались квадратным строем в восемь глубину и шестнадцать в ряд. Греческая кавалерия не считалась такой эффективной или разносторонней, как фессалийская и македонская.

Легкая кавалерия

Легкая кавалерия, такая как prodromoi (буквальный перевод «те, кто бежит впереди»), во время боя охранял крылья армии и выполнял разведывательные задания. Существует некоторая двусмысленность относительно использования в источниках термина prodromoi; он мог быть использован для описания любой кавалерии, выполняющей разведку, перестрелку или разведку, или он мог обозначать отдельное подразделение, или действительно оба. Помимо продромоев (в смысле единого подразделения), кавалерию окружали другие всадники из подчиненных или союзных наций, выполнявшие различные тактические роли и владеющие разнообразным оружием. К тому времени, когда Александр начал кампанию в Индии, а впоследствии кавалерия была радикально реформирована и включала в себя тысячи конных лучников из иранских народов, таких как Дахае (видное место в битве при Гидаспе ).

Prodromoi / Sarissophoroi (кавалерийский отряд)

Ученые разделились по этническому составу продромоев македонской армии. Большинство авторитетов считают продромоев происходящими из македонцев, что соответствует афинским продромоям, выросшим из фет, низшего переписного класса афинских граждан. Секунда, однако, дает им происхождение от Th раса. Арриан обычно отличает продромоев от легкой кавалерии Пеона, чтопредполагает фиксированный этнический состав. Эта неопределенность, вероятно, связана с отсутствием определенного понимания использования термина prodromoi в первоисточниках, упомянутых выше. Продромои иногда упоминаются как сариссофоры, «пикинеры» или «копейщики», что приводит к выводу, что они иногда были вооружены необычно длинным ксистоном (считается, что его длина составляет 14 футов), хотя, конечно, не пехотной пикой. В первоисточниках Арриан упоминает, что Аретес командовал продромоями; в том же контексте Курций говорит, что Аретес командовал сариссофорами. Похоже, что одно и то же конное подразделение было известно под обоими именами.

Продромои / сариссофоры действовали как разведчики, проводя разведку перед армией, когда она шла в поход. В бою они использовались в ударной роли для защиты правого фланга кавалерии Соратников. Персидская легкая кавалерия взяла на себя эти обязанности, когда они стали доступны македонской армии после Гавгамелы. Затем продромои взяли на себя роль ударной кавалерии исключительно на поле боя. Возможно, что продромои, благодаря их навыкам владения длинными копьями и их обширному боевому опыту, считались более ценными в роли ударной кавалерии, особенно после ухода фессалийской кавалерии. Четыре илаи продромоев, каждый по 150 человек, действовали с армией Александра в Азии.

В Гавгамеле продромои под командованием Аретеса были ответственны за окончательный разгром персидской левой кавалерии и победу в битве в этом секторе.

Пеонийская кавалерия

Эта легкая кавалерия набиралась из Пеонии, племенного региона к северу от Македонии. Пэоны были завоеваны и низведены до статуса данников Филиппом II. Под предводительством своих вождей пэонская кавалерия обычно входила в бригаду с продромоями и часто действовала вместе с ними в битвах. Кажется, у них есть enid Persian Empire. These infantrymen were called Pezhetairoi, which translates as 'Foot Com y.Каждой шеренгой из 16 человек, лочос, командовал лочагос, который был в первом ряду. Младшие офицеры, один в тылу и один в центре, стояли на месте, чтобы укрепить ряды и поддерживать сплоченность строя, подобно современным сержантам. Командир синтагмы теоретически боролся во главе крайне правого ряда. Согласно Элиану, синтагма сопровождалась пятью дополнительными людьми в тылу: герольдом (чтобы действовать как посыльный), трубачом (чтобы издавать команды), прапорщиком (держать штандарт подразделения), дополнительный офицер (называемый оураго) и слуга. Этот набор как звуковых, так и визуальных методов коммуникации помогал гарантировать, что даже в пыли и грохоте битвы приказы все еще можно получать и отдавать. Шесть синтагм сформировали такси из 1500 человек, которыми командовал стратег, переменное количество таксистов образовало фалангу под управлением фалангиарха. Во время своей азиатской кампании Александр имел фалангу из 6 таксистов-ветеранов численностью 9000 человек. Между Сузами и Индией было создано седьмое такси. Антипатр, как регент в Македонии, остался с 8 таксами молодых, менее опытных новобранцев.

Каждый фалангит нес в качестве своего основного оружия сариссу, которая была разновидностью пики. Длина этих пиков была такой, что в бою ими приходилось держать двумя руками. Традиционный греческий гоплит использовал свое копье одной рукой, так как большой щит гоплона нужно было удерживать левой рукой, поэтому македонский фалангит выигрывал как в досягаемости оружия, так и в дополнительной силе двуручного удара. На близком расстоянии от такого большого оружия было мало пользы, но неповрежденная фаланга могла легко удержать врагов на расстоянии; все оружие первых пяти рядов выступало за пределы фронта построения, так что точек для копий было больше, чем доступных целей в любой момент времени. Солдаты задних рядов подняли сариссы для защиты от ракет с воздуха. А фал an (right). He is equipped with a hoplon (Argive) shield, so probably is a Hypaspist. He also wears a linothorax cuirass and a Thracian helmet. Alexander Sarcophagus.

Hypaspists

The Hypaspists (Hypaspistai) were the elite arm of the Macedonian infantry. The word 'hypaspists' translates into English as 'shield-bearers'. During a pitched battle, such as Gaugamela, they acted as guard for the right flank of the phalanx and as a flexible link between the phalanx and the Companion cavalry. They were used for a variety of irregular missions by Alexander, often in conjunction with the Agrianians (elite skirmishers), the Companions and select units of phalangites. They were prominent in accounts of Alexander's siege assaults in close proximity to Alexander himself. The Hypaspists were of privileged Macedonian blood and their senior chiliarchy (χιλιαρχία) formed the Agema foot bodyguard of Alexander III.

The organisation of the hypaspist regiment seems to have been into units of 500 (pentakosiarchies) before 331 and later, by 327, it was divided into three battalions (chiliarchies) of 1,000 men, which were then further sub-divided in a manner similar to the Foot Companions. Each battalion would be commanded by a chiliarch, with the regiment as a whole under the command of an archihypaspist.

In terms of weaponry, they were probably equipped in the style of a traditional Greek hoplite with a thrusting spear or doru (shorter and less unwieldy than the sarissa) and a large round shield (hoplon ). As well as this, they would have carried a sword, either a xiphos or a kopis. This would have made them far better suited to engagements where formations and cohesion had broken down, making them well suited to siege assaultsand special m issions. Their armour appears to have varied depending on the type of mission they were conducting. When taking part in rapid forced marches or combat in broken terrain, so common in the eastern Persian Empire, it appears that they wore little more than a helmet and a cloak (exomis ) so as to enhance their stamina and mobility. However, when engaging in heavy hand-to-hand fighting, for instance during a siege or pitched battle, they would have worn body armour of either linen or bronze. This variety of armaments made them an extremely versatile force. Their numbers were kept at full strength, despite casualties, by continual replenishment through the transfer of veteran soldiers chosen from the phalanx.

A new term for hypaspistai emerged after the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC: the argyraspides ('silver shields'). The latter continued to serve after the reign of Alexander the Great and may have been of Asian origin. However, in regards to both the argyraspides and chalkaspides ('bronze shields'), Malcolm Errington asserts that "these titles were probably not functional, perhaps not even official." Sekunda states that Alexander's pike-wielding infantry numbered some 12,000 men, 3,000 of which were elite hypaspistai and 9,000 of which were pezhetairoi. However, in discussing the discrepancies among ancient historians about the size of Alexander the Great 's army, N.G.L. Hammond and F.W. Walbank choose Diodorus Siculus ' figure of 32,000 infantry as the most reliable, while disagreeing with his figure for cavalry at 4,500, asserting it was closer to 5,100 horsemen.

Greek hoplites

An ancient fresco of Macedonian soldiers from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, Greece, 4th century BC

The army led by Alexander the Great into the Persian Empire included Greek heavy infantry in the form of allied contingents provided by theLeague of Corinth and hired mercenaries. These infantrymen would have been equipped as hoplites with the traditional hoplite panoply consisting of a thrusting spear (doru), bronze-faced hoplon shield and body armour. In appearance, they would have been almost identical to the hypaspists. In battle, the Greek hoplites had a less active role than the Macedonian phalangites and hypaspists. At Gaugamela, the Greek infantry formed the defensive rear of the box formation Alexander arranged his army into, while the Macedonians formed its front face. Nevertheless, they performed a valuable function in facing down attempts by the Persian cavalry to surround the Macedonian army and helped deal with the breakthrough of some Persian horsemen who went on to attack the baggage.

Light infantry

Peltasts

Agrianian peltast - modern reconstruction by Johnny Shumate

The peltasts raised from the Agrianes, a Paeonian tribe, were the elite light infantry of the Macedonian army.They were often used to cover the right flank of the army in battle, being posted to the right of the Companion cavalry, a position of considerable honour. They were almost invariably part of any force on detached duty, especially missions requiring speed of movement. Other nationalities also provided peltasts for the Macedonian army. Especially numerous were the Thracians; the Thracian peltasts performed the same function in battle as the Agrianians, but for the left wing of the army. It is unclear if the Thracians, Paeonians, and Illyrians fighting as javelin throwers, slingers, and archers serving in Macedonian armies from the reign of Philip II onward were conscripted as allies via a treaty or were simply hired mercenaries.

Peltasts were armed with a number of javelins and a sword, carried a light shield but wore no armour, though they sometimes had helmets; they were adept at skirmishing and were often used t o guard the flanks of more heavily equipped infantry. They usually adopted an open order when facing enemy heavy infantry. They could throw their javelins at will at the enemy and, unencumbered by armour or heavy shields, easily evade any counter-charges made by heavily equipped hoplites. They were, however, quite vulnerable to shock-capable cavalry and often operated to particular advantage on broken ground where cavalry was useless and heavy infantry found it difficult to maintain formation.

Archers

Philip II was also able to field archers, including mercenary Cretan archers and perhaps some native Macedonians. In most Greek states, archery was not greatly esteemed, nor practised by native soldiery, and foreign archers were often employed, such as the Scythians prominent in Athenian employ. However, Crete was notable for its very effective archers, whose services as mercenaries were in great demand throughout the Greek World. Cretan archers were famed for their powerful bows, firing arrows with large, heavy heads of cast bronze. They carried their arrows in a quiver with a protective flap over its opening. Cretan archers were unusual in carrying a shield, which was relatively small and faced in bronze. The carrying of shields indicates that the Cretans also had some ability in hand-to-hand fighting, an additional factor in their popularity as mercenaries. Archers were also raised from Macedonia and various Balkan peoples. Alexander inherited the use of Cretan archers from his father's reign, yet around this time a clear reference to the use of native Macedonian archers was made. After the Battle of Gaugamela, archers of West Asian backgrounds became commonplace and were organized into chiliarchies.

The use of Asiatic soldiers under Alexander the Great

According to Arrian, Alexander used Arachosian, Bactrian, Parapamisadaean, Sogdian, Indian, and Scythian troops. They were present at the grand armyrevue Alexander assembl ed in 324 BC. Alexander was said to have been impressed by the drill of the 30,000Persians who had been trained in the methods of the Macedonian phalanx. The army supposedly reached 120,000 front-line troops at one point. This did not include camp followers. There has been considerable debate as to when Alexander first used Orientals on active service with the army. During his campaign in Asia against the Persian Empire he formed a hipparchia (i.e. unit of a few hundred horsemen) of companion cavalry composed entirely of ethnic Persians. The introduction of Asiatic troops into the army was actively resented by many of the native Macedonians, especially when the cadre of young Persians from aristocratic families was trained in Macedonian fighting techniques and enrolled in the companion cavalry. Alexander's reaction was to make plans to rule Asia with a locally recruited army, but his death intervened before he could carry out this plan. His successors reversed his aim of diversifying the army and recruited Greeks and Macedonians almost exclusively.

Arms and armour

An image depicting an ancient Macedonian shield displaying the 'Vergina Sun ', a royal symbol. Excavated at Bonče, North Macedonia.

Philip II's phalangite infantry were equipped with a 'proto-Telamon shield' that already diverged from the hoplon style shield featured in sculpted artwork of a Katerini tomb, dated perhaps to the reign of Amyntas III of Macedon. His early infantry were also equipped with protective helmets and greaves, as well as sarissa pikes, yet according to Sekunda they were eventually equipped with heavier armour such as cuirasses, since the Third Philippic of Demosthenes in 341 BC described them as hoplites instead of lighter peltasts. As evidenced by the Alexander Sarcophagus, troopsserving Alexander the Greatwere also armoured in the hoplite fashion. However, Errington argues that breastplates were not worn by the phalanx pikemen of either Philip II or Philip V's reign periods (during which sufficient evidence exists). Instead, he claims that breastplates were only worn by military officers, while pikemen wore the kotthybos along with their helmets and greaves, wielding a dagger as a secondary weapon along with their shields.

There is a considerable body of evidence to suggest that the different classes of Macedonian soldier trained to use a variety of arms and equipment. Certainly, cavalry, including Alexander himself, fought on foot during sieges and assaults on fortified settlements, phalangites are described using javelins and some infantrymen were trained to ride horses. The deployment of differing types of armour and weapons was dependent solely on the requirements of a particular tactical situation.

Weapons

The hunter on the right is wielding a kopis cutting sword, the hunter on the left holds a scabbarded xiphos straight sword. Both types of sword were used by Macedonian cavalry and infantry. Lion Hunt mosaic from the Macedonian capital Pella, late 4th century BC. Fresco of an ancient Macedonian soldier with a grounded spear. He wears 3 items of clothing, which, in combination, are considered typcal of Macedonians: The kausia cap, the Macedonian type of chlamys (cloak) and krepides (boots), from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, Greece.

Most troops would have carried a type of sword as a secondary weapon. The straight-bladed shortsword known as the xiphos (ξίφος) is depicted in works of art, and two types of single-edged cutting swords, the kopis and machaira, are shown in images and are mentioned in texts. An archaeological find of a well-preserved Macedonianxiphos revealed a sword with a blade length of 55 cm and a weight of 300g. The cutting swords are particularly associated with cavalry use, especially by Xenophon, but pictorial representations would suggest that all three sword types were used by cavalry and infantry without obvious distinction.

Each Companion cavalryman was equipped with a 3-metre double-ended spear/lance with a cornel wood shaft called the xyston. The double spear points meant that, should the xyston break during a battle, the rider need only turn his weapon around to re-arm himself. The Thessalian and Greek cavalry would have been armed similarly to the Companions. The xyston was used to thrust either overarm or underarm with the elbow flexed. This is usefully illustrated in the Alexander Mosaic, King Alexander is shown thrusting with his xyston underarm, whilst immediately behind him a cavalryman is employing the overarm thrust. There is no evidence that the Macedonian cavalry ever used a two-handed grip on their lances, as did later Sarmatian and Roman lancers. The shaft of the xyston was tapered allowing the point of balance, and therefore the hand grip, to be approximately two thirds of the length of the spear away from the point.

The armament of the phalangites is described in the Military Decree of Amphipolis. It lists the fines imposed upon the soldiers who fail to maintain their armament or produce it upon demand. Offensive weapons were a pike (sarissa ), and a short sword (machaira ). The sarissa was over 6 m (18 ft) in length, with a counterweight and spiked end at the rear called a sauroter; it seems to have had an iron sleeve in the middle which may mean that it was in two pieces for the march with the sleeve joining the two sections before use. Like the xyston, the sarissa was greatly tapered towards the point. This, along with the sauroter, helped to make the point of balance as far towards the butt of theweapon as possible. It shouldbe stressed that the archaeological discoveries show that the phalangites also used the two-edged sword (xiphos ) as well as the traditional Greek hoplite spear (doru /δόρυ), which was much shorter than the sarissa. The sources also indicate that the phalangites were on occasion armed with javelins. The sarissa would have been useless in siege warfare and other combat situations requiring a less cumbersome weapon.

Hypaspists and allied and mercenary Greek heavy infantry were equipped as classic hoplites and would have employed the hoplite spear and a sword.

Light troops were provided by a number of subject and allied peoples. Various Balkan peoples, such as Agrianes, Paeonians and Thracians, provided either light infantry or cavalry or indeed both. Typical light infantry peltasts would be armed with a number of javelins. The individual javelin would have a throwing thong attached to the shaft behind its point of balance. The thong waswound around the shaft and hooked over one or two fingers. The thong made the javelin spin in flight, which improved accuracy, and the extra leverage increased the power of the throw and the range achievable.

Foot archers, notably mercenary Cretans, were also employed; Cretans were noted for the heavy, large-headed arrows they used. Light cavalry could use lighter types of lance, javelins and, in the case of Iranian horse archers, compact composite bows.

Helmets

A simple conical helmet (pilos ) of a type worn by some Macedonian infantrymen. A Thracian helmet. It lacks its cheek pieces. Boeotian bronze helmet, the front of the helmet is to the right

Virtually all helmets in use in the Greek world of the period were constructed of bronze. One helmet prominent in contemporary images was in the form of a Phrygian cap, that is it had a high and forward-projecting apex, this type of helmet, also knownas a "Thracian helmet ", had a projecting peak above the eyes and usually had large cheek pieceswhich were often decorated with stylised beards in embossing. Late versions of the Chalcidian helmet were still in use; this helmet was a lightened form developed from the Corinthian helmet, it had a nasal protection and modest-sized cheek pieces. Other, more simple, helmets of the conical 'konos' or 'Pilos type ', without cheek pieces, were also employed. These helmets were worn by the heavy infantry.

The Thracian helmet was worn by Macedonian cavalry in King Philip's day, but his son Alexander is said to have preferred the open-faced Boeotian helmet for his cavalry, as recommended by Xenophon. The royal burial in the Vergina Tomb contained a helmet which was a variation on the Thracian/Phrygian type, exceptionally made of iron, this would support its use by cavalry. Additionally, a fresco depicting a Macedonian mounted lancer spearing an infantrym an, from the Kinch Tomb, near Naousa, shows the cavalryman wearing a Thracian type helmet. The Boeotian helmet, though it did not have cheek pieces, had a flaring rim which was folded into a complex shape offering considerable protection to the face. The Alexander Mosaic suggests that officers of the heavy cavalry had rank badges in the form of laurel wreaths (perhaps painted or constructed from metal foil) on their helmets.

The Alexander Sarcophagus shows Alexander the Great wearing an elaborate helmet in the form of the lion scalp of Herakles. Alexander's cousin Pyrrhus of Epirus is described as wearing a helmet with cheek pieces in the shape of ram's heads. Many examples of helmets from the period have crest or plume-holders attached, so that a high degree of martial finery could be achieved by the wearing of imposing headpieces.

Body armour

Hellenistic muscle cuirass and a helmet derived from the Thracian/Ph rygian type, combined with elements of the Boeotian type Alexander the Great in battle. The kingwears a composite cuirass which copies the shape of the linothorax. The shoulder elements and upper chest are of plate iron, whilst the waist is composed of scale armour for ease of movement. There are pteruges of leather or stiffened linen at the shoulders and hips. The king wears a xiphos sword. Detail of the Alexander Mosaic (A Roman copy of a Hellenistic painting).

Body armour in the Macedonian army was derived from a repertoire found throughout the Greek-speaking world. The most common form of armour was the linothorax, which was a cuirass of stiff linen built up of glued or stitched layers of textile; though it is possible that linen was used as a facing material over leather. It was composed of the 'girdle' a tubular section, often of four vertical panels, that enclosed the torso. A shoulder-piece was attached to the upper rear section of the girdle, this element was split into two wings which were pulled forward over the top of each shoulder and laced to the chest-section of the girdle. Ancient representations show the shoulder pieces standing vertical when not laced down to the chest of the corselet. This suggests that the linothorax as a whole was very stiff and inflexible. Pteruges, strips of linen or leather, protected the upper arms and hips of the wearer. The linothorax could be reinforced with plate bronze or bronze scale elements. Defences of a similar appearance composed of quilted textile are also described.

Less common, due to its expense, was the muscle cuirass. This was a defence made entirely of plate bronze consisting of a breast and backplate, usually with shoulder pieces, modelled in relief on the form a muscular male torso. This was often given pteruges to extend the area of the body covered.

A complete cuirass of plate iron, decorated with gold and modelled on the form of the linothorax,was discovered in the Macedonianroyalburial at Vergina. This, alongside the evidence of the depiction of Alexander the Great in the Alexander Mosaic, shows that the technology to make plate armour in iron existed at this time. It is to be doubted that this type of armour was worn by persons other than of royal or very exalted rank.

All of the above forms of armour could be described as thorakes (plural of thorax). Other forms of armour are mentioned in original sources, such as the kotthybos and a type of "half-armour" the hemithorakion (ἡμιθωράκιον); the precise nature of these defences is not known but it would be reasonable to conclude that they were lighter and perhaps afforded less protection than the thorax. However, it has been suggested that when the terms kotthybos, hemithorakion and thorax occur together, as in the Amphipolis regulation, then thorax may refer specifically to the bronze muscle cuirass. Within the phalanx the thorax and hemithorakion were reserved for hegemones, the officers. It has also been proposed that the kotthybos might refer to a form of linothorax. It is recorded that Alexander ordered the burning of old armours, which suggests that the armour in question was non-metallic.

Archaeological remains exist for only one type of limb armour: bronze greaves, which protected the lower leg. Greaves could be worn by both heavy infantry and heavy cavalry, but they are not in great evidence in contemporary depictions. However, greaves are mentioned in the Military Decree of Amphipolis and a pair of greaves, one shorter than the other, were found in the Vergina Tomb.

Xenophon mentions a type of armour called "the hand" to protect the left, bridle, arm of heavy cavalrymen, though there is no supporting evidence for its widespread use. It may have resembled the later manica armour used by Roman gladiators and cataphract cavalry.

Shields

TheMacedonian phalangite shield, also termed the 'Telamon shield', was circular and displayed a slightconvexit y; its outer surface was faced by a thin bronze sheet. The inner face of the shield was of wood or a multilayered leather construction, with a band for the forearm fixed to the centre of the shield. Plutarch noted that the phalangites (phalanx soldiers) carried a small shield on their shoulder. This probably meant that, as both hands were needed to hold the sarissa, the shield was worn suspended by a shoulder strap and steadied by the left forearm passing through the armband. The left hand would project beyond the rim of the shield to grip the sarissa. Recent reconstructions of the sarissa and phalangite shield showed that the shoulder strap supporting the shield effectively helps to transfer some of the weight of the sarissa from the left arm to the shoulders when the sarissa is held horizontally in its fighting position. The Macedonian phalangite shield is described by Asclepiodotus (Tact ica, 5) as being eight palms wide (equivalent to 62 cm or 24 inches) and "not too hollow".

The lefthand figure shows the armband and grip on the inside of a hoplon or Argive shield - painted Corinthian krater c. 560BC.

From pictorial sources, it is probable that the Hypaspists, elite members of the infantry, including the Agema of the King's personal foot guard, employed a shield of larger dimensions, the traditional Greek hoplite shield called the hoplon or aspis (ἀσπίς), it is also referred to as the 'Argive shield'. This shield, also circular, was larger than the phalangite shield, it had sheet-bronze facing over a wooden base; it was held with the left forearm passing through a central armband with a hand-grip set just inside the rim. This shield was more much convex than the phalangite shield and had a projecting rim, both features precluding its use with a double handed pike. The style of shield used by caval ry, if any, is less clear; the heavy cavalry of Alexander's time did not employ shields.

Lightinfantry javelineers would have used a version of the pelte (Ancient Greek: πέλτη) shield, from whence their name, peltast, derived. This was a light shield made of leather-faced wicker. The shield was of Thracian origin and was originally crescent-shaped, however, by the time of Macedonian greatness many depictions of peltai show them as being oval or round.

Siege warfare

The Macedonians had developed their siege tactics under Philip. They had for the first time conducted successful sieges against strongly held and fortified positions. This was a dramatic shift from earlier warfare, where Greek armies had lacked the ability to conduct an effective assault. For instance, during the Peloponnesian War, the Spartans were never able to take Athens despite easily conquering her surrounding territory. For the task of breaching the walled fortifications of cities, Philip II hired engineerssuch as Polyidus of Thessaly and Diades of Pella, who were capable of building state of the art siege engines and artillery firing large bolts.

Artillery

A modern reconstruction of the gastraphetes

The dramatic change in the abilities of Greeks to operate against fortifications owed much to the development of effective artillery. This had begun around 400 BC in Syracuse under Dionysius I. By Alexander’s time, torsion-powered artillery was in use. Torsion machines used skeins of sinew or hair rope, which were wound around a frame and twisted so as to power two bow arms; these could develop much greater force than earlier forms (such as the gastraphetes ) reliant on the elastic properties of a bow-stave. Two forms of such ballista were used by the Macedonians: a smaller bolt-shooting type called the oxybeles and a larger stone-t hrowing machine called the lithobol os. The largest lithoboloi could fire stones up t o 80 kg inweight. Such machines could shower the defenders of a city with missiles and create a breach in the walls themselves.

Alexander the Great appears to have been one of the first generals to employ artillery on the open field of battle, rather than in a siege. He used massed artillery to fire across a river at a Scythian army, causing it to vacate the opposite river bank, thus allowing the Macedonian troops to cross and form a bridgehead.

Other siege engines

In conjunction with various forms of artillery, the Macedonians possessed the ability to build an effective array of siege engines. Prominent in a number of sieges, including the epic Siege of Tyre (332 BC), were siege towers; these allowed men to approach and assault the enemy walls without being exposed to potentially withering missile fire. Equally, they meant that more men could be put on the walls in a shorter period of time, as simple ladders constrained the men attacking to moving up in single file, thus making the task of defending the walls far easier. These structures, which were wheeled and several stories high, were covered with wet hide or metal sheathing to protect from missile fire, especially incendiaries, and the largest might be equipped with artillery. The Macedonian army could also deploy various forms of suspended, metal-tipped, rams. Such rams were usually provided with a wheeled, roofed covering to protect their users from missile fire; they were employed to batter down gates or to dislodge masonry from walls and so cause a breach (this latter form was sometimes called a 'drill' rather than a ram).

Battle tactics

Macedonian battle formation.

The Macedonian army was one of the first military forces to use 'combined arms tactics', using a variety of specialised troops to fulfill specific battlefield roles in order to form agreater whole. Although it did not succeed in every battle, the army of Philip II was able tosuccessfullyadopt the military tactics of its enemies, such as the embolon (i.e. 'flying wedge') formation of the Scythians. This offered cavalry far greater manoeuvrability and an edge in battle that previously did not exist in the Classical Greek world.

The tactics used by the Macedonian army throughout the various campaigns it fought were, of course, varied; usually in response to the nature of the enemy forces and their dispositions, and to the physical nature of the battlefield. However, there were a number of features of the tactics employed by the Macedonians in pitched battles which can be identified as being typical. These features were evident in the first major battle the army, newly trained up by Philip, fought in 358 BC and could still be discerned at Gaugamela in 331 BC.

The battle fought in 358 BC near Lake Ohrid was intended to free Macedon of the threat from Ill yria and recover some western areas of Macedon from Illyrian control. The Illyrians, led by King Bardylis, were at a similar strength to the Macedonians at about 10-11 thousands. Philip had 600 cavalry, the Illyrians were concerned about being outflanked by the Macedonian cavalry and formed up in a hollow square. Philip massed his cavalry on his right flank and arranged his army in echelon, with the left refused. As had been anticipated, the Illyrians stretched their formation in order to bring the Macedonian left wing into action. Philip waited until the inevitable gap appeared in the left of the Illyrian square, then threw his cavalry at the gap. The cavalry forced their way into the Illyrian ranks and were followed by elements of the phalanx. The Illyrians broke after a fierce struggle, and three-quarters of Bardylis' army were slaughtered. The oblique advance with the left refused, the careful manoeuvring to create disruption in th e enemy formation and the knock out charge of the st rong right wing, spearheaded by the Com panion caval ry, became standard Macedonian practice.

Decline

Following the fragmentation of the empire of Alexander, Macedon became an independent kingdom once again. The military forces of this successor state, the Antigonid Macedonian army, retained many features of the armies of Philip and Alexander. The Hellenistic armies of the other Macedonian successor-states of the Diadochi period, which followed the death of Alexander, also displayed a continuation of earlier Macedonian equipment, organisation and tactics. Towards the end of the period, however, there was a general decline in the use of the combined arms approach, and the phalanx once more became the arm of decision. The phalangites were armed with longer pikes and as a result the phalanx itself became less mobile and adaptable than it had been in Alexander's era. Because all the competing Hellenistic armies were employing the same tactics, these weaknesses were not immediately apparent. However, the Hellenistic armies were eventually faced by forces from outside the successor kingdoms, such as the Roman and Parthian armies, composed of differing troop types using novel tactics. Against such foes the Hellenistic-era phalanx proved vulnerable. The phalanx finally met its end in the Ancient world when the more flexible Roman manipular tactics contributed to the defeat and partition of Macedon in the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C.

See also

Notes

References

Primary

Secondary

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Further reading

  • Black, ed. by Jeremy (2005). The Seventy Great Battles of All Time. London: Thames Hudson. ISBN 0500251258.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link )

External links

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