Yeyi people

Yeyi people (described as Bayeye), 1861

The MaYeyi (also: Yeyi or Bayei) are Bantu-speaking people of north-western Botswana and north-eastern Namibia. The Yeyi immigrated to the area in the 18th century from the north, and lived in close cooperation with the San people, or Basarwa, in particular, the Xanikhwe (otherwise known as Maghumaahi, meaning the San clan who live along riverbanks, just like the other riverine tribes such as Wayeyi and others) who had lived in the area previously. They speak ShiYeyi, a language that was influenced by the San and exhibits the characteristic clicks.

History

According to oral tradition, the baYei emigrated from the kingdom of the Lozi people in the 18th century, and were led into Ngamiland by the skilled fisherman and hunter Hankuzi. When the baYei met the baKhakwe people, Hankuzi married one of their women, possibly as a guarantee of peace. A number of immigration waves followed. The baYei learned many of the baKhakwe's survival skills, including new fishing techniques, while the baYei are credited with bringing the canoe-building technology to Ngamiland. The baYei also had connections to the Lozi in the north, and traded tobacco for iron with them. Iron was important in the baYei economy for producing spearheads and tools.

1. Historical background

Historically, the Yeyi moved from central parts of Africa in 200 A.D. and by 305 A.D. they had already settled in Kavango, some settled in Ngamiland (Botswana) while some settled in the Liyeyi (now Caprivi in Namibia). However, writing in Africa was unknown in those times save those in the Middle East who started writing from 200 BC; these are the Phoenicians, Egyptians, Greeks, Arabs and the Romans. The Yeyi (meaning people) are recorded to have been the first people who crossed the Kavango Delta and occupied the Caprivi Region as early as before 200 AD and by about 1750 they had spread in various directions of the Caprivi, Kavango and Botswana as per records in the books: Botswana Records and History of Botswana by Alec Campbell and C. Tlou 1983; and the Bulozi Under the Luyana Kings by Mutumba Mainga (1973:159).

The Yeyi and their faction, the Tjaube, and the San are the first people to have settled in the Kavango and Botswana. The Yeyi that are now in Botswana left their other tribal members in the Liyeyi and proceeded to Ngamiland, now Botswana. There were no other tribes to have lived there earlier than the Yeyi, meaning that the whole claim of the region covering the area from Impalila (Makumba Island), Kazungula vicinity through to Ngamiland and Kavango was occupied by the Yeyi. It should also be noted that the Yeyi were moving in the interior when they were classified by Stow and Schunke (1964:404). In essence, they and their faction, the Tjaube and the San had moved through all the countries that are known today with different names and discovered them, but their last resort were the lands in which they are scattered and found today.

During the exchange of the Caprivi Strip by the British to Germans, the new arbitrary boundaries imposed by the colonial Europeans interfered with the nature the Yeyi, the Tjaube (a Yeyi clan) and the San lived and respected their surroundings. However, the Yeyi, the Tjaube and the San still hold it firmly that those areas are theirs regardless of new boundary changes in post and colonial Namibia, Botswana, Angola, Zimbabwe and Zambia.

The Yeyi people went in difficult times of oppression by the Makololo from South Africa (Sotho people who stayed in the Yeyi area from 1830 - 1864) until after the Malozi of Zambia whom they overthrew and conquered revoked their rule. The rule of the Kololo was weakened by the cruel ruler Sekeletu, Sebitwane’s step son and his nephew Mpololo, who contested for leadership. This contest resulted in Mpololo being murdered by Sekeletu at Shima, in the Malundu vicininty near Kanono, in the now Zambezi Region. The whole of Zambia and the present Zambezi Region were all under the Sotho flag.

The Malozi after the death of Sebitwane on Sunday evening 7 July 1851 found that the Makololo administration under Sekeletu, his successor (1851-1863) was shaking and therefore revoked this rule and fought for the retention of their Lozi identity. From 1863, the plot on how they must take on the revenge to fight the Makololo and overthrow them began and in 1864 the Makololo were overthrown and the government returned to the Lozi nation. The slackness of the Makololo was a result of the concentration of Sekeletu on slave and material trade between him and the Portuguese who colonized Angola some 500 years ago, recording the first colonization in Africa. He also traded with the British and other natives so that the focus was mainly on self-enrichment than the organization and institutionalization of the nation as his predecessor Sebitwane had done. This was now the era of the Sikololo or the Silozi language, which led to the Yeyi being colonized and even their names changed or Silozi-zed and were forced to speak a foreign language when Imataa or Simataa Kabende, an induna sent by Lewanika to man the southern frontier settled in the Yeyi territory in order to fend off the return of their feared Makololo foes in about 1864/5.

Regardless of that force in speaking Silozi or Sikololo, the Yeyi remained firm in speaking their language to date. At the coming of the Germans between 1908 and 1910 to declare the Caprivi area as a Police Zone, just as they had done to Owamboland, the south and the central regions of South West German (present Namibia), they started with their institutional and administrative arrangements via the traditional chiefs in order to gain control of the territory and exploit the resources for their own benefits and interests. Streitwolf, the then appointed Resident to the Caprivi Zipfel in 1909 led the Strip into tribal chief recognition processes that saw the two tribes, viz., the Mafwe and the Masubia having their chiefs. Before the chieftainship of the Masubia, it was eminent that Chief Mamili (Simataa Kabende) was the recognized paramount chief of the Mafwe and the Masubia at the time, but Streitwolf foreknowing that this would lead to the extension of the Lozi expansionism of their territory and allowing Britain to control over the tiny strip, declined the support of the paramount chieftainship of Simataa Kabende (Chief Mamili) over the Masubia. It should be noted here that most of the Masubia had earlier fled the strip into Zambia where they originally fled in May 1879 and were subjected to the Lozi rule and some were still in Botswana. It was this reason that Streitwolf had to organize for their return to elect a chief of their own on 4 May 1909 on which date Chikamatondo (who is not a Musubia) was elected to be leader over the Basubia tribe at Luhonono (present Schuckmansburg). You, as a reader might wonder why the author is emphasizing this historical background, which could be in your view sound to be irrelevant.

The reason for this historical background, which in my opinion would be of help to the reader, is to emphasize the nearly or approximate death of the Shiyeyi language as a result of the chieftainship of the Sotho and later the Barotse, the Germans and the South Africans among the Yeyi tribe. Equally important to understand is the fact that both the Yeyi of Botswana and those of Namibia had equally suffered the same tribal, traditional and cultural damages and could not propel forward with the promotion of their tribes and languages in the areas they resided at the time due to

these tribal and language domination by those who claimed leadership over them. The freedom of the Basubia and the conglomerated Bafwe in the Strip from the Barotse started on this date when the German resident Streitwolf declared them as separate tribes with their own chiefs and were fully under the German protectorate.

At the coming of South Africans by the end of 1915, the Strip saw the same treatment and continued to suffer the same consequences. Amid all these two similar political and administrative dispensations, the Yeyi tribe, which needed a chief of their own and tribal recognition, as they used to have them prior to the arrival of the Barotse never stopped protesting that they needed their own leaders even when they were fined and detained by Chief Mamili at his royal place at Linyanti in 1988.

The Yeyi were barred from tribal recognition and identity but were not silent until after the independence of Namibia on 21 March 1990 that the Yeyi retained their traditional leadership by electing Honourable Chief Boniface Lutibezi Shufu on 1 August 1993 after so many consultations with the chieftainship lineage of the Mamili monarchies of the time. The Mafwe, Matotela, Hambukushu, Subia and the Yeyi were colonized by the Barotse. They all were forced to learn the Sikololo language, which later became known as Silozi, thus destroying their tribal and language identities directly or indirectly.

2. The change of name from Liyei to Dinyanti (Linyanti)

One of the worst things that the Kololo had done was that of changing the name Liyeyi into Dinyanti (a Sotho name for reeds). After Sebitwane’s arrival amongst the Yeyi in 1830, he conquered them and murdered their leader and then established his capital at Sangwali. Further on, he waged war of conquests to subdue other neighbouring tribes in Zambia and the Ndebele of Zimbabwe. The reason for Sebitwane to enter Bulozi and attack them and the surrounding tribes was prompted by the Subia who were time after time being plundered by the Ila of chief Sikume. On the invitation by the Subia, in order for him to attack the Ila or Lea so that they would see peace, he went on further to conquer and subdue all the surrounding tribes there, but could not only stop for this mission alone. When he received information that there were numerous herds of cattle owned by the Lozi, he continued to attack and conquer all the other tribes and capturing their cattle, children, young men and women who were conjugated to his Kololo tribe and were taught the culture and systems of the Kololo to be his future subjects.

Tired of fighting wars, he then rested from all his wars and lived in peace at Linyanti (present Sangwali). This was in 1851 when he reflected on all his war conquests and decided not to fight, but rather live a peaceful life. He later renamed Liyeyi as Dinyanti (a Sotho name for reeds). Since the Lozi has a dialect which does not use the "d" to start a word on its own, they changed the name to Linyanti while the Yeyi changed it to Linyandi. The Germans also renamed it after their Chancelor Von Caprivi.

3. The original land of the Yeyi

The whole former Caprivi Strip with all its international recognized boundaries was formerly known as Liyeyi, meaning the land of the Yeyi people (Mainga 1973:159, Fisch 1999, Tlou & Campbel 1983, Africa Insight 177. Vol. 26. No. 2 1996).

4. Tribal boundaries before 1750

The Yeyi moved through Ngwezimba Stream (present Zimbabwe), Tanzania, Angola and Zambia to settle in the Caprivi. All the other tribes such as the Mafwe, the Totela, the Subia, the Khoe and the Mbukushu came after the Yeyi had already occupied the area.

The Yeyi tribe is part of the other tribes of the interior in their sojourn from central parts of Africa down south. After a series of expeditions from central parts of Africa, the Yeyi now moved and fought wars with other tribes and nations they encounted along the way. They were the first to cross the Kavango Delta and settled in the land between the Zambezi, the Chobe and the Kwando Rivers (Stow & Schunke 1964:404; Mainga 1973:159; Tlou & Campbel 1983: Campbel 1980: 73-77; Fisch 1999) in the area they named after their own name as Liyeyi.

By 600 A.D., the Yeyi were already settled in the Chobe and Thamalakane Rivers and by 850 A.D. they had covered west of the Kavango Delta at Tsodilo Hills, as observed by Tlou & Campbell (1983:90). Tlou & Campbell (1983:90) state as follows: "Most history books tell us that northern Botswana was only occupied by Khoesan people until about 1750 when the Yeyi began to settle the Delta. We have already seen that the Yeyi farmers with the knowledge of metal working were living on the Chobe and Thamalakane Rivers by about AD 600 and on the west of the Delta at Tsodilo by AD 850. The pottery made by the Yeyi today has many similarities with the pottery we have excavated belonging to a thousand years ago. This strongly suggests that the people living in the Delta areas today are the descendants of the first millennium (a thousand years). The oral historians of the Yeyi give their place of origin as the middle Zambezi and Chobe areas."

The above information is supported by Neils Parsons in his "excerpt from the History of Botswana."

The Yeyi has a history of living in the area of settlement and regarded as people of the river as stated by Tlou & Campbell (1983:93); "probably the most important farming peoples to live in northern Botswana during early times were the Yeyi. The Yeyi people came from Central Africa and some time in the remote past made their way down the Zambezi River. They may have occupied parts of northern Botswana for a thousand years or more. The Mbukushu who also came there after them named the land as Diyeyi (meaning, the land of the Yeyi people). This was as early as before 1000 AD. Some were left in the Liyeyi while some went further to the south until they discovered Lake Ngami, which is also spelt as Ncami where they

settled and engaged in activities of fishing and hunting animals, which they used as food. The Mbukushu name for the Yeyi people is ‘Hadjo’ meaning the river people.

5. Tribal boundaries after 1750

Sebitwane conquered the Yeyi in 1830 and controlled the whole Liyeyi (Caprivi Strip) and Zambia. In May 1879, the Subia, Totela and Mbukushu were fleeing the Lozi attacks and then entered the region and went as far as Botswana. At the coming of the Subia, Fwe, Totela and Lozis of Lewanika under Mamili the Caprivi Strip witnessed an influx of other different tribes coming into the region. As stated earlier, the Yeyi controlled the whole Liyeyi [Caprivi Strip] (Mainga 1973:159). When the Lozi came in, in 1865, Lewanika sent Imataa Kabende (Mamili I), as resident to fend off the intrusion of other tribes in the region. Mamili was in charge of the whole Caprivi Strip and all the tribes of the region which are: Yeyi, Subia, Totela, Mbukushu, Khoe until 1909 when the Germans appointed the two chiefs Chikamatondo for the Subia tribe and Mamili for the conglomerated Mafwe tribe.

6. German influence

When German influence was felt over the strip, the first Subia chief Chikamatondo was inaugurated on 4 May 1905 and supported by the Germans under Streiwolf, who was the German resident to the Caprivi Strip. The same Germans went and inaugurated Imataa Kabende (Mamili I) as Chief of all the tribes in the west, south and north, viz. the Yeyi, Mbukushu, Totela, Mafwe and Lozi including some of the Subia people. The Germans left two tribal chiefs heading many different tribes as follows: The Subia were only in charge of their own Subia tribes which were living in the areas of Schuckmansburg before Bukalo was given to them by chief Mamili on Masubia’s request since their areas were flooding and wanted their traditional authority to be established in a non-flooding area (Fisch 1999).

7. The Mayeyi area of jurisdiction before the Mamili era

Induna Sangwali was in charge of the area from Ngenda (Namushasha), which is the area before Ngonga. The boundary line here is the depression between Ngonga and Namushasha. Mutau began from Kapani through to Lusu. From Lusu to Masokotwani, induna Kachana controlled this land until Masokotwani. From Masokotwani to Muyako was controlled by Induna Mate. From Muyako through to Ngala and the vicinities of Siseke-sa-banyai was under Induna Nyata. All these indunas mentioned in the jurisdictional areas listed above are all Yeyi.

8. The area of jurisdiction from Imataa Kabende(Mamili i) era from 1864 to 1993

When Imataa Kabende took over he found it fit that to control the tribes under him as imposed by the Germans, he should demarcate areas of jurisdiction for the area he was in charge of as chief under the German control of the Caprivi Strip. Induna Sangwali under the new Mamili administration was in charge from Ngenda until Kapani as an induna.

9. Arrival of the Barotse (Mayeyi in the Lieyi)

9.1 The Origin of the Lozi Nation and of its Royal House

We do not want to go into many details, but only capturing the most essential parts of these issues. The Luyana who latter were known, as Lozis believed that God whom they called Nyambe lived on earth where He created many wives of all kinds for himself and that these wives had children who formed different kinds of nations with different customs, forms and languages. They believed that God (Nyambe) married Mwambwa in this way, and also Mwambwa’s daughter Mbuywamwambwa at one stage would give birth to a cow and at another to a human child. It was believed that the children whom Mbuywamwambwa gave birth to were without a father. There is an argument in those beliefs. Some continued to say that those who had no father were just ordinary children because they were born far from the capital. Others say that those children were Nyambe’s children, because they had no father since Mbuywamwambwa was his wife. God was the father to both human beings and animals, so they believed.

They farther believed that arguments arose between God and human beings on the issues of the human beings killing animals and God tired of all these unrests and unnecessary spontaneous reports migrated to heaven where he would not be reached.

Immediately after God had gone to heaven, Mbuywamwambwa migrated from Barotseland (the land of the Lozis) and went to live in Kaumbu in the Lunda country where common people followed him. After sometime while there, she repented and told his subjects that he and them should return back to the Barotseland, which she said was a very good country. Some of her subjects refused to go back to the Barotseland and vowed to remain behind. Mbuywana remained behind and married Kalunda, the head of the Alunda clan. Soke or Sokanalianga separated from her and went to Lukulu and to Mwito. Mange went with his mother Nolia to Bukwangwa, to the village of Makala, (whose father is Sandao). When Mbuywamwambwa arrived in Barotseland, she settled at Makono village. A chief had to be chosen from Mbuywamwambwa’s children by the subjects, as she requested and the first Lozi chief was elected and put into the throne.

Mboo was the first Lozi Chief, followed by his younger brother Inyambo. Yeta succeeded his elder brother, Inyambo and became the third chief of the Lozis. Ngalama was the fourth Lozi chief to the throne.

What we want the readers to know is that the Bayeyi tribe did not have any influence or control by the Barotse until when Sibitwane conquered them (Bayeyi) and went to conquer the entire Bulozi (Barotseland) and subjugated them with his impis together with the Bayeyi and formed a kingdom of his own, which he ruled with his successors until in 1865 when King Sipopa retained the Barotse Kingdom.

Many historians used to refer to the point that the main tribes in the Caprivi were the Masubia and the Mafwe, which in itself has never been true. This has been a biased history, which many centuries will hold if it is not corrected. This was just putting other tribes at an advantage in terms of control over others or job opportunities where one tribe carnally puts itself in jobs and neglecting the others hence creating an incrimination and militarization of the others to take up arms against the other tribes. This also created a situation where a so-called major tribe conjugates other tribes through the use of force and fight against other tribes. This further over-spilled to genocide of other smaller tribes, because one tribe puts itself in higher, middle and lower echelons of jobs at the expense of the other tribe(s), a situation that is existent today. This induces disunity and inclines to hatred of the others.

The name Mafwe have no traces elsewhere in the Zambian history. The Ba Kalomo and the Mashanjo people of Zambia are the sections from which the Mafwe of the Caprivi today originate or emanate.

The people with a Zambian element who are today living in the Caprivi are the Mashanjo and the Ba Kalomo (hereinafter referred to as the Mafwe), the Matotela, the Hambukushu (Mbukushu), and the Masubia. The Bayeyi people have no marked history where they lived in Zambia under the control of the Lozi except when Sebitwane, a Sotho of the Fokeng tribe of South Africa connected them in 1838. Over a period of 5 years (from 1833 – 1838), the Makololo under their leader and warrior, Sebitwane, having conquered the Bayeyi in about 1829 and 1830 who were at the time in the Liyeyi (present Caprivi Region) fought the Lozi (Barotse) and conjugated them to his kingdom. Those tribes mentioned above who had direct influence with the Lozi have traces with them, but the Bayeyi just passed through Mozambique, Malawi, Zambia, etc. at the time of human movement and settled in the land Liyeyi while others (Bayeyi) went to settle in Ngamiland in north-western Botswana. This period was before 1000 AD as Campbell and Tlou observe. The Tawana, Tswanas and other tribes of South Africa got them (Bayeyi) with the San or Batwa or Basarwa or Bushmen already in the area. If there are those precipitates of the Bayeyi presently residing in Zambia, these went during the liberation struggles and those who live there as a result of economic wants such that they were there for job-seeking. However, for clarity’s sake, we will go on expanding briefly on the origins of the tribes of the Caprivi only, where did they come from, when did they come in the Caprivi, what did they want, what do you mean when you talk about an area of influence or jurisdiction, who their leaders were, how their administration was run, who did they influence, what their statuses were and who did they make alliance with and why?

When you talk about a country or an area of jurisdiction, you must know what you are talking about today. When you talk about a paramount chief or chief today, you must know what you are referring to. When you talk about the people you are controlling as a chief, you must know what you are referring to. When you say you are a chief, you must know what you are talking about. When you say you are a sub-chief, you must know what you are talking about. When you talk about an

induna, you must know what you are talking about. Kingdoms and kings were very much playing an essential role here.

Why all those questions? New names such as president, constituency, councilors, wards, regions, governors, etc., have changed today’s understanding and meaning of the kind of government we have now come to know. Also, these do not mean to say that tribes or languages totally changed. What is this Lozi or Silozi or Sinyai (Shona). Silozi is a new and a foreign language to both the histories of Zambia and her counterpart Namibia, especially the Caprivi Region where this language is spoken. Silozi is formed from both Sotho and Luyana with Setswana dialects. The Bayeyi people came to know Silozi and even most of them do not speak it as a language nor do the Mafwe or some other languages in the Region.

For those proponents and advocates, who wish to extend the Lozi Dynasty, the message to them is clear that they will not stand. How will the one dynasty from its own country of origin work in two separate countries? The formulae are being reversed. If you were colonized you have to decolonize.

We will go on to list the names of those tribes who were colonized by the Lozis after the fall of the Kololo as follows and as provided by Dr Mutumba Mainga of the University of Zambia in her published book, Bulozi Under the Luyana Kings:

"The first detailed written description of the boundaries of Bulozi was by the missionary, Francois Coillard, in June 1890, when Lewanika was signing a treaty with Frank Lochner, a representative of the British South Africa Company. Coillard, claiming to define the boundary as described to him by the king and the Indunas, gave the general boundary lines as:" "The Mayeye (Mayei) along the Zambezi between that river and the Chobe (present Caprivi); Mashaiyo (Mashanjo), living in the woods along the Zambezi River (Zambia); Ba Mashi or Bakaromo about the Chobe or Kwando Rivers (Zambia); Mawiko (north-western Mbunda) among the tributaries of the Zambezi River (Zambia); Manyango (Manyengo), also among the tributaries of the Zambezi River (Zambia); Makoma and Ba Moenyo (Ba Muenyi) Loanginga River; Baubale (Ba Lubale) or Ba Kakenge (Zambia); Ba Runda. Ba Lukoloe (Lukolwe) and Ba Kaonde on the Lunga River; Mankoea (Mankoya), very numerous on the Ruena (Lwena) River (in Zambia) Liamba (Lamba?); Mashikulumbwe (Ila) on the Kafue River (in Zambia); Matomoe (Matomwe) or Bawe between the Kafue and the Zambezi (in Zambia); Malea, in the vicinity of the Musiotunya (present Victoria Falls in Zimbabwe); Mananzoa (Mananzwa), Wankie’s people (in Zimbabwe); Mambundi (Mambunda), mixed with the Barotse (in Zambia); Batoka, very numerous, north of the Zambezi River (in Zambia); Ma Subia, in the neighbourhood of Kazungula and along the river (in Zambia); Makuangoa (Makwangwa) near the valley (in Zambia);

The next person sent by the British Government Foreign Office to determine the limits of the Lozi kingdom in 1898 was Major Goold Adams who reported his detailed findings as follows:

Contentions between Britain and Portugal regarding those boundaries took place

" He placed the boundaries of the Lozi kingdom as follows: in the west as far as the Chobe or Kwando River – and he stated that Lewanika claimed the area between the Kwando and Lungwebungu Rivers (bordering Zambia and Angola). In the east, he included the Mankoya, Kwangwa, Totela, Subiya and Toka, and mentions also Ba Mashasha, Kaonde, and Mashukulumbwe. In the north, Goold Adams picked on the watershed between the Zambezi and the Congo Rivers as the boundary lines." The expeditions of Major Colin Harding and R.T. Coryndon had similar conclusions such as those of Major Gibbons and his party. The three different institutions that used to send those officials were the Council of the Royal Geographical Society, the Director of Military Intelligence and the Directors of the British South Africa Company in Bulozi who had diverse interests into those boundary disputes. These pushed the boundaries further in the west and north to the Kwito and the Kasai Rivers respectively.

More information would have been given on each of these tribes, but no space and time if we were to go into details.

Where the people have been over the centuries misled that the Bayeyi did not have kings or chiefs or leaders, a true picture is here indicated as follows:

The origin of the name Yeyi (people), Bayeyi (people) or Muyeyi (human being) is dating back from centuries ago. The name was derived from their leader (paramount chief) Matsaratsara who was called Muyeyi. Between 1750 and 1800, they started migrating from Liyeyi to Bechwanaland (present Botswana) and settled in Ngamiland. (Tlou 1985) and Murray (1990:4) estimate that the Bayeyi must have come as early as before 1000 AD while others say they came around 1400 ca. The Bayeyi are reported to have been the first Bantu speaking to have emigrated to the Okavango delta and settled into the Liyeyi (present Caprivi Region) (Tlou 1985:11).

9.2 The beginning of conflicts between the Yeyi, the Mafwe and the Subiya (court cases, paramount chieftaincy, custodianship of the Caprivi)

When the Union of South Africa took over the administration of the then Caprivi Strip, present Caprivi Region, and the Mafwe were grouped together with the Yeyi and referred to as Bafwe/Bayeyi, during the introduction of the 1945 tribal levy of five shillings. In 1971 the South African Colonial Administration under Proclamation R261 of 3 December 1971 removed the name of Bayeyi from the list by the State President of that country, in consultation with Marula Khuta (Mafwe Tribal Authority). The Mafwe Tribal Khuta and the entire tribe were ruled by Chief Richard Temuso Muhinda Mamili. This action came as a surprise to the Bayeyi and some Mafwe. However, the Bayeyi vowed to fight this until to the end. On 2 August 1992 they declared themselves as an independent tribe from the Mafwe thereby retaining their identity. This followed an election of their own chief, Boniface Lutibezi Shufu II on 1 August of the following year (Proclamation R261 of 3 December 1971. Insert its copy in. insert photo of the chief of the Mafwe Muhinda Mamili and the chief of the Subia Maiba Moraliswani. Insert also photo of president of South Africa at the time).

The Mafwe have gone through an interesting process. The traditional authority that is named after them is situated in the Mayeyi area. They have no authority over that authority. A small family born of Lozi and Subia from Zambia controls the authority. The only time they had a most senior position in that authority was when Mr. Francis Munduba Mungu, a Mufwe, from Sibbinda was elected Ngambela (Senior Councillor) and only to be unceremoniously removed from that position after a term of 3 years (1984 to 1987). Anything done by this authority be it good or bad is regarded as done by the Mafwe, while the Mafwe proper were not involved. Senior administrative positions both in Government and at the Traditional levels were normally controlled by the Lozi family under the umbrella of the Mafwe. This has adversely affected the Mafwe proper economically and socially like their counterparts the Bayeyi, Totela, Hambukushu and the Bushmen.

To counter these imbalances and embarrassments, the Mafwe proper established an organization named Tulikonge (a Few word meaning "Let's stick together"), whose objectives were to have the Mafwe proper separated from the pseudo-Mafwe and establish their own traditional authority, which would operate separately and independently of the pseudo-Mafwe Traditional Authority located at Cincimani.

To counter the Bayeyi and possible Tulikonge comeback, the Mafwe Traditional Authority embarked on the establishment of sub-chiefs who would be deployed among the so-called Mafwe tribes to take control and monitor these tribes on behalf of Chief Boniface Bebi Mamili based on organizational structures adopted from the Lozi Dynasty after their visits from Mongu in Zambia.

The first sub-chief to be appointed by the Mafwe Traditional authority to take control over the Mafwe proper was Brendan Mwekezo Kabende at Kayuwo area about 3 km north of Choyi. The Mafwe proper resisted this imposed appointment and at one night his settlement put to ashes. Kabende survived the incidence with the help of Rodwell Kumpoma who was the so-called Ngambela of his. Their proposed administration over the Mafwe proper in that area dismally collapsed. However, Mr. Kumpoma, later, rejoined his proper tribe, the Mafwe proper under Chief Mayuni, a Mufwe proper, whose recognition by Government was finalized.

Similar attempts were made at Malengalenga, in the Yeyi area to appoint George Simasiku as sub-chief over the Yeyi, which was also resisted and died a natural death. After failing to get support among the Yeyi, he returned back to his home at Cincimani, where he later succeeded Chief Boniface Bebi Mamili who went into self- exile in Botswana and later to Denmark in Europe with his cousin Mr. Albert Mishake Muyongo. George Simasiku’s Khuta was Mushukula.

The third attempt was to deploy another sub-chief named Bartholomew Simataa to take control over the Masubiya of Muyako area who were under the leadership of Chief Mutwa Muraliswani. The Masubiya, in the like manner resisted the move and could not allow such an imposition of sub-chief.

The other faction of the Mafwe on the other hand decided to counter these moves by electing Chief Tembwe Mayuni as their own chief. The other remained with Chief

Boniface Bebi Mamili as their chief. This caused divisions among the Mafwe and is continuing up to the present day.

The withdrawal of Chief Mayuni and his followers has been very difficult compared to his counterpart, Chief Shufu of the Mayeyi. The cause of this is the big division within the Mafwe proper themselves.

9.3 Further New Political Developments on the Name Change Over Liyeyi

The two tribes, the Masubia and the Mafwe have always been at loggerheads with each other on tribal advancements and have been listened to by both the pre- and post-colonial governments to advance their tribal ambitions at the expense of other tribes of the region. The main focus of these two tribes in the region is how best they could convince government that one of them becomes the owner of the region and can grasp control over the whole region. They have uttered various public statements about their custodianship to the region, but they had not achieved what they want, because they are not the sole owners of the region. No one will listen to them as long as they come with falsified histories. Their greatest defeat both of them was in the case that was before the courts in Pretoria, South Africa, in 1983 which they lost dismally on conditions that they both do not have hegemony over the Liyeyi. What a loss they both witnessed. Their ambitions did not only end with the previous colonial South Africa, but extended their claims even in the independent Namibia. Due to their false claims, no one listens to them. They have failed dismally in all spheres of influence in the past and will still fail.

One cannot go on condemning the concerned group regarding the issue that Kavango has taken part of the Caprivi. The concerns of the concerned groups; whoever they are; should be regarded as genuine and cannot be given a blatant back by anyone who only is a well-wisher. They are claiming their ancentral rights over their own land. Should part of the Kavango be given to the Caprivi; the Kavango people will react vigorously. It must be noted that when the Oshikwanyama people were insisting on getting land from northern Kavango, the retaliation left four Oshikwanyama men dead by pangas at the hands of the Kavango people as a result of the Kwanyamas feedling on the land of the Kavango being embattled. What does this tell? Will the people of the Caprivi Region remain silent when their land is being taken and given to other people? No. Unfaireness and injustices will soon be redressed and no stone on such land to the Kavango will be left unturned. There are no clear reasons why the Kavango should take other people’s land and being helped by the government. The chiefs have been very spectating and have been playing the role of cliental as it was in the colonial era. They are pacified by their salaries and benefits they get from the government of the day and have no vision about fighting for what belongs to them and their future generations. The current governor and his regional captains have also been pacified and have become more toothless and have insofar assisted in accepting the injustices upon the people of the Caprivi regarding the land being given to Kavango without being objective over the matter. What their

roles for representing the people have been; were only motivated by their self- contentness and not advocating the rights of the people of the Caprivi, present Zambezi Region.

The 4th Delimitation Commission appointed by President Pohamba failed in their duty on the case over the decision of demarcating the land according to the rights and freedoms that the people of the Caprivi have. Where authorities make decisions to threaten people, there are always weaknesses in such authorities and as a result those citizens who are objective and cannot be convinced by reasons of such decisions have always been arrested or killed due to failure of authorities in addressing their cases in openness and fairness. There are no consultations that were held for the people of the Caprivi to be certain in all fairness. Why is it that the name change of the Caprivi to Zambezi Region becomes an issue? What about the seriousness of the encroachment of the Kavango Region into the Zambezi Region? What fairness is there will only be determined by the present and the future generations over these land matters. There is no development that needs a region to change so that there can be development, instead here there was just a creation of further disputes and serious conflicts between the Kavango and the people of the Caprivi in future. What happened to Eritrea, Sudan and Ethopia are great lessons to learn from. Decisions were not exact by these governments so that in the end, they created problems for themselves. An island that was taken from Cuba by the Americans was returned to Cuba in recent years. Are these lessons not to learn from? Caprivi is solely Namibian and treating it differently from other regions creates animosity for the present and the future generations. Arresting objective citizens which the authorities fail to convince based on acting derogatively, has led many countries of the world to go into unnecessary intra-regional and intra-national wars which could be avoided by authorities acting in good faith.

The constituencies of the Caprivi region were not founded on developmental reasons, but solely on tribal grounds. How long this will take to know, is just a matter of time and the truth behind these eight constituencies will surface in the open eyes of the Namibian people. Many tribes of Namibia are peace lovers and have given up fighting for ambitions and those are the ones who have been at the receiving ends when it comes to development in terms of the areas where they are pocketed.

The similar ambitions by the Subia and the Mafwe of the past colonial South Africa in just creating comfort zones for themselves in higher political administration and political positions in governments can also be observed in other regions of Namibia and these are the issues that need to be gleaned and rectified in order to build a stable Namibian nation, which is founded on the premise of justice for all. Lessons of genocides in Africa are everywhere, Rwanda cited, as an example would be a great learning lesson for Africa in the past, today and tomorrow. Lessons that should also be learnt are those of authorities to know that people of the current age have no respect for arrests and detentions. The more injustices are practised to people, the more they polarize, become disgruntled and continue to incriminate themselves and the state. They do not fear authorities anymore, because justice does not pay off for others. Others receive justice while others do not get an inch of this justice.

Unbelievable commissions of violence are on the increase due to injustices perpetrated on people; be it on gender or non-gender issues. Africa has had many violent activities by the various movements that turn their arms against the very governments that they themselves had a hand in creating, but the fact that they become discriminated in the systems; they become objective and seen as opponents of the very people they dined together with in the trenches of liberation movements. The Lord’s armies are rampant in the African continent, collectively, due to injustices being practiced on them by the very people they had trust in.

The glories of the Germans on their imposed Caprivi name to the Liyeyi in honour of their Chancellor was running into the final collosals of history and its burial came at the announcement of the Zambezi Region to replace the Caprivi Region by President Pohamba and his 4th Delimitation Commission of August 2013.

The Caprivi and Luderitz suffered the blows when it was discovered that these name-changes had to divide the people where some could be referred to as "concerned groups". Why should people be referred to as "concerned groups?" the answer is simple, proper consultations were not made. The Caprivi people were not consulted and their grief comes as a result of the failure of their regional councilors in not holding at least four meetings in their constituencies according to the instructions and recommendations from their regional governor, Alufea Sampofu, in order to get the feelings of the people with regards to the name-changes and the constituencies. It has appeared that these constituencies were only created on tribal lines which will soon surface. It is yet to be observed and witnessed whether development was the reason for the 4th Delimitation Commission of 2013 to be instituted or not. Much is left to be desired in the intentions of the main reasons behind this 4th Delimitation Commission appointed by President Pohamba. This is the first Delimitation of its kind in Namibia that caused an outcry countrywide and its activities not trusted by many; as it was viewed to have acted with sketchy ulterior motives. To this day, there are commotions to the decisions of this Commission; as many regions were addressed according to their needs and not in the cases of the Caprivi and Luderitz. Many are still in the dark of the actions carried by the said Commission; because much of the activities of it; is still to be observed in what results it might end into. The whole process as viewed by many citizens of this country was based on tribal and regional interests and not in the development of the regions per se.

The Yeyi were the most affected at the end of the determination and renaming of their Linyandi constituency to Lyabboloma, which has nothing to do with Linyanti, which they had held and is truly theirs. If tribalism in this state of affairs should be leveled, it is here where Linyanti Constituency is changed to Lyabboloma and has no meaning at all to the people who remained in that constituency. The Yeyi feel that they are totally left out. Why imposing a name which has no meaning to the people? Much was truly witnessed as tribalising of the Lyaboloma Constituency was observed that the initiators of the name were those from the Mafwe Khuta, the Mafwe family members of the late Lyabboloma, the chief of the Mafwe at Linyanti Khuta and their hand in making their dream realized, the current Caprivi Regional Governor. The dream of the Mafwe to think that the Yeyi would once again be ruled under their

flag as ushered to them by the colonial German- South West Africa Administration should be regarded as a distant dream. This will never happen – now and forevermore. The Yeyi took a stand and that remains so. Those who think that they have the land Liyeyi to fight for should also forget; as history has it all.

10. KATIMA MULILO DECLARATION ON TRIBAL JURISDICTION

The 22 – 25 May 1992 Katima Mulilo Declaration stated clearly that current areas of jurisdiction of tribes should be respected and that chiefs be called according to the names they are called by their own tribes and shall not influence other people. It was farther mentioned that subjects of chiefs far from their tribal land and are resorting in the area of another chief, the prerogative remains with those subjects to decide on who should resolve their disputes or attend to their concerns. The tribal identity does not change with the area of jurisdiction. The areas of jurisdiction are fixed, but societies are not. Therefore, identification of tribes by the language they speak should not be used as the deciding factor here when one tries to identify a tribe a person originates from.

Tribal conflicts ensued as a result of the Subia and the Mafwe who always had to fight each other on land and appointments of their subjects to government positions as we shall see later. These two tribes have known it very well that for them to prosper in government positions, tribalism should be the one that they had to use. This kind of attitude is still among the two tribes to this day. The created tensions in those two ethnic groups in the Caprivi are mainly based on greedy, pomp and disregard for other ethnic groupings in the same region; and these have also been widespread in Namibia for the sake of progressing themselves and citing reasons that they are the majority in the region. These two tribes have been conglomerates of many tribal groupings that decided to be called by their tribal names and in numbers all these two groups are the least in the then Caprivi Region. Details shall be seen later in which is truly a Subia and truly a Yeyi, Fwe, Totela, Mbukushu or San of the Caprivi Region.

11. TRIBAL MIGRATION AND OCCUPATION OF OTHER TRIBES IN THE CAPRIVI STRIP

11.1 The Subia or Masubiya are also one of the tribes who migrated from the central parts of Africa to the southern parts of Africa.

From 1725 to 1775 when King Ngombala was ruling the Lozi Dynasty, the Masubia were under the Lozi control. This became as a result of the Lozi expansionism of their territory to include many other tribes under their rule. King Ngombala after conquering tribes, on which he waged war, put royal representatives from the Lozi nation to take physical control over those tribes to guard Lozi interests.

King Mwanambinyi of the Lozis attacked the Subia and the Mbukushu at old Sesheke, present Mwandi, and conjugated them to his kingdom. The general in charge of Mwanambinyi's army was his own son Mulia who conquered the Subiya and the Hambukushu. At the time, the Subia were ruled by their chief Mwanamwali

and the Hambukushu under their chief Rukonga. General Mulia, son of Mwanambinyi, attacked the Subia and their leader Mwanamwali who were residing at Sesheke. He conquered them and led them with their chief, Mwanamwali, to Senanga. In the same attack, the Hambukushu and their chief Rukonga were attacked in the Longa Island at Katima Mulilo and taken over to Senanga where they and the Masubiya were resettled in the Islands of Mbeta and Sitoti and other surrounding islands and became subjects of the Lozi under Chief Mwanambinyi.

Liswani fled from Sesheke with the other group and settled at Kazungula in the south-eastern parts of Sesheke. These unrests caused by Chief Mwanambinyi took place before the arrival of the Makololo in about 1789. Mwanambinyi and Mange were Luyana leaders who became notable troublers of the Masubiya, Hambukushu and Totela tribes when in Zambia in the 1700s. When the Makololo attacked the Lozis and conquered them in about 1840, the Makololo turned on the Basubia and defeated them also thus ruling them as their subjects (Tlou & Campbell 1983:93).

There were many bitter conflicts between the Masubiya and the Leya tribe in the nineteenth century. The Masubiya were under the leadership of Nsundano while Sikute led the Leya. Nsundano was the son of Sanjo. Chief Sikute and his people lived in the Kalai Island (in Zambia), which served as a fortress against the invasion of enemies. Chief Sikute and his people used to play treachery on strangers. What they did was to act as if they are kind and were helping the people to cross the river. When they had helped them cross the river, they led them to the islands and captured them or even killed them or rob them of their properties. These insurrections were continuous to such an extent that the Chief of the Masubiya, Nsundano, went to King Sebitwane of the Makololo residing in the Lyiyeyi (present Caprivi Region) to seek help against his enemy. Sebitwane had at the time subjected the Yeyi under his control. Nsundano requested King Sebitwane to cross the Zambezi and fight the Leya for him (Litaba za Sicaba sa Malozi 1959:32). The chief of the Masubiya, Chief Nsundano, and his subjets thought that after Sebitwane had defeated the Leya and their Chief would return to his country and leave them in peace and stability. However, this was not King Sebitwane's aim.

When the Makololo under the leadership of Sebitwane entered into the Lyiyeyi, present Caprivi Region, some of the Subiya were staying at Sesheke in western Zambia and others at Kazungula. These Subia people were scattered by the wars fought by the Luyana (Lozi people) who fought other tribes in order to capture their property, (e.g. cattle, children and women), alliances to fight and conquer other tribes, tribal and territorial expansionism and as well popularity and to be feared by the surrounding tribes or nations.

When King Mwanawina, son of Sibeso, was overthrown by Lubosi, he came to Sesheke to request the support of the Masubiya to go and fight King Lubosi in order to retain his throne, but the Masubiya were reluctant to be involved in these war campaigns. After Mwanawina had failed to get support from the Basubiya, he went to the Batoka where he raised an army to revenge against Lubosi. On his return from the Batoka with the army, the Basubiya joined him and went for the war against Lubosi. A fierce battle was fought at Lumbe River where Mwanawina was

defeated and sought refuge among the Batoka where he later died. The Masubiya also fled through the Mababe and sought refuge from King Khama of the Bamangwato in the present Botswana. The Subiya did not settle in the Caprivi as they were on the run, but rather settled in Bechuanaland. The Subiya settled in Bechuanaland (present Botswana) and they named the area where they settled as Itenge. Itenge has no connotations or intentions or influence in the Liyeyi at the time or in the future. The Subiya who fled fearing Mwanambinyi were led by their leader Mwanamwali from Zambia to Bechuanaland. In Botswana, after so many years, they complained that they needed a leader of their own, but the government of Botswana never allowed it to this day amid the Subiya’s extensive requests. Some of these Subiyas returned to the Lyiyeyi and were resettled by the Yeyi in those areas where they are today, before the arrival of the Germans to the Caprivi Strip.

King Lubosi pursued the Masubiya and the Batoka for helping Mwanawina in the war against him. King Lubosi kept a close eye on the people of Sesheke, as he no longer trusted them after being involved in the war campaigns with the Masubiya and the Batoka to overthrow him. In 1882, the Batoka and the Mashukulumbwe were killed and scattered in all directions leaving the Masubia in a state of terror, because the Lozi had vowed to destroy them (Mainga 1973:121-3).

Sesheke was a traditional home for the Subia before being subjects of the Lozi early in the eighteenth century (Grotpeter 1979: 282; 295). The Subia, Totela, Mbukushu and the Mafwe according to Mainga (1973:11) form part of the founders of the present Lozi dynasty which incorporated two distinct groups, one in the north and one in the south of Zambia. Neither group had a centralized political structure before the rise and the arrival of the Lozi State. They all seemed to have lived in small autonomous groups with their own chieftaincies, which were later to be conquered and subjugated individually into the new Lozi State. Interestingly, the descendants of the tribes of these two distinct groups are still remembered and identifiable with the same names even in the present Zambia or Congo where they originated. Accordingly, both the two distinct groups can be traced as follows: in the north were the Muenyi, Imilangu, Ndundulu, Mbowe, Liuwa, Simaa, Makoma and the Nyengo while in the south were the Subiya, the Mbukushu, Toka, Totela, Shanjo and the Mafwe. These are amongst other groups, still existing today in Zambia.

Mwanambinyi, a man of miracles, when failing his wars with King Ngalama, moved southwards. While in the south, he enslaved all Mutemwa’s people. He waged war against the Mambukushu at Katima Mulilo and on the Longa Island and defeated their chief Lukonga. Mwanambinyi captured Lukonga’s maoma (traditional drums of the chief of the Mambukushu tribe). Liswani escaped and fled to Kazungula while Cheete fled to Butoka. Mwanambinyi’s son, Mulia, conducted other wars as far as Sesheke and the Subia with their chief, Mwanamwali, were defeated in these wars and brought to Senanga and subjected them there under his father’s control. He conquered the Mbukushu and were relocated at the islands of Sitoti and Mbeta where he ruled them until Ngalama waged many wars, but failed to conquer Mwanambinyi who was highly skilled in miracles and charms.

The Lozi territorial expansion ambitions towards the south in the Sesheke negatively affected the surrounding inhabitants and the Masubiya in particular, who were intensively forced by the Lozi to cultivate great fields of the Lozi King, transporting visitors in canoes across the river over the rapids, etc., without any compensation or reward of any kind (Mainga 1973:148).

However, in about 1875 during King Sipopa's rule over Sesheke, he relied more on the Toka and the Basubia in the administration of the Lozi Nation. It is important to note here that; King Sipopa's mother was a Subiya, which made him to rely on the Basubiya to administer the Lozi affairs. While at Sesheke, Sipopa cultivated large fields, but only to be deposed thereafter leaving these large fields without benefiting from them, hence the name currently given to one of the places at Sesheke, as Mulimambango (cultivating in vain) (Mainga 1973:112-113).

The Masubiya, Hambukushu and Yeyi small groups who migrated into the present Botswana fleeing Lubosi settled in the south eastern parts of Boteti and Lake Ngami. These small groups moved down the waterways through the Magqwegana River to the Okavango Delta driving their small herds of cattle and in a way avoiding tsetsefly areas.

The Basubiya were agriculturalists, hunters, and fishermen like their neighbours, the Hambukushu and the Yeyi. The Basubiya lived on fishing, hunting animals and cultivating crops such as millet, sweetcane, and melons in wet soil. They started cultivating their lands in autumn and then waited for the winter flood to pass. Once the winter flood is over, they then started to cultivate their lands. The Basubiya kept a few cattle, goats and sheep. These flood plains were cultivated during this period so that by the time the rain seasons come, their crops are now tall and would not suffer preparing food in the drought seasons.

They traveled through the shallow water in their canoes fishing and hunting. The men hunted by chasing wild game into the water and then driving their canoes close to the swimming animals and killed them by stabbing them with the spears as they swim across the river (Tlou & Campbell 1983:90-95).

After the fall of the Kololo Empire, in 1864, the Lozi Kingdom incorporated the Toka, Totela, Subia, Yeyi, Mafwe, Hambukushu and the Batwa (Bushmen) who remained in Bulozi controlled areas and those who were in the present Caprivi Region. These tribes had their own traditional leaders before the Lozi and Kololo invansions. These invansions negatively affected the leadership of these tribes, as the Lozi and the Kololo placed their own appointed chiefs as overlords over these tribes. However, the Subia in the present Caprivi Region managed to regain their leadership on the arrival of the German Colonial Administration. When Kurt Streitwolf arrived in the present Caprivi Region, the Basubia were in Zambia, Botswana and Caprivi Region. One of the problems Streitwolf faced with the Basubia was that the Lozi who were grazing their cattle in the Basubia areas had fled with the Basubia cattle. Streitwolf invited the Subia to elect their own chief so that when he starts with negotiations with the British Adminstration for the return of their cattle there would be a leader to report to. The Subia welcomed the invitation

and on 1 May 1909, turned up. They arrived in about 30 canoes. There were 120 men who arrived to Streitwolf's Head Quarters. Streitwolf informed them about the purpose of the gathering to be there for the election of their chief. The selection of the candidate was aimed at getting a direct descendant from old Chief Liswani lineage. However the right candidate to take over the chieftainship was Liswani's young son who at the time was too young as seen by Streitwolt to take over this high responsibility. After a usual lengthy deliberations and consultations, the selection fell on three candidates, namely, Chombo who was a favourite in line of the Subia dynasty, Munyaza (further investigated for his relationship with Liswani dynasty) and Chikamatondo who was married to Liswani's sister. The people tried to request Streitwolf to help them in choosing the right candidate to the position of chief. But Streitwolf declined the request giving the reason that the choice of a chief was solely the responsibility of the Masubia themselves. The Subia, after lengthy consultations among themselves with regards to the election of their chief, they resolved unanimously to elect Chikamatondo, as their chief. He was inaugurated on 4 May 1909. It must be clearly stated here that the Subia could not elect Chombo, because he deserted and fled the country for fear of being belectede to the new responsibility. The Masubia were fortunate to have the opportunity of restoring their lost and disrupted chieftainship at the intervention of Streitwolf, unlike in the case of the Yeyi, Mafwe, Hambukushu, Totela and the San (Bushmen) in the present Caprivi Region whose Lozi rule was just imposed upon them by the same Streitwolf. It must be stated here that accorinding to the information from our elderly, after Streitwolf had accomplished the role he played in appointing the Masubia chief Chikamatondo, he turned to the areas occupied by the Yeyi, Mafwe, Hambukushu, Totela and the Bushmen and just informed them that as from then, Induna Mamili was their Chief; as false rumours were spread in the region that the Germans who were coming, do eat pepeole. This forced them to only accept the German rule under fear. They were not given an opportunity like in the case of the Subia to restore their lost and disrupted leadership.

Simwine (Chief) Chikamatondo ruled the Masubia from 4 May 1909 until his death on 18 July 1945, after 36 years of rule. He was succeeded by his son Mubusisi in 1945. The Masubia returned to their chieftainship of the Liswani lineage as their chief. They elected Simwine (Chief) Maiba Liswani who ruled the Masubia until his death in 1965. Maiba Liswani was succeeded by his son Maiba Mutwa Liswani who ruled in difficult political upheavals from 1965 until his death in 1996. His brother, the present Simwine Kisco Maiba Liswani, succeeded him.

The other group of the Subia under the leadership of Maiba Nkonkwena fled to Botswana in about 1879, after the Lozi had attacked them. At present they occupy the Chobe District, Rakops, and Botletle, in the areas of Gxwaha (Goha Hills), and Gumare, all in the Republic of Botswana.

The Masubia call themselves by three names, viz. the Subia, Bekwahane (a name which originated among the Subiya of Botswana) and Benamahe (those living in the reed areas).

Some of the traditions and cultures such as marriages, hunting, fishing, fruit gathering, farming and many others of the Subia are similar to those of the Yeyi and Hambukushu as they all like to stay along the river side. Intermarriage practices among the tribes in the Caprivi Region are common.

The Subia lived in Sesheke-Mwandi and in the islands near these areas (Fisch, 1999:69) before being dislodged by the Lozi who scattered them into three groups, viz. those that remained in Sesheke-Mwandi, Kazungula and those who moved to Botswana before settling in the Caprivi Strip. The Subiya people were forced to leave Sesheke and Mwandi areas when they were attacked by the Lozi kings, Mange, Mwanambinyi, and during the time of Lubosi and Mwanawina, forcing them to leave and settled at Kazungula in the early 1800's to the early 1900's.

11.2 The Mafwe

Narrative history has it that the Mafwe migrated from Zambia into the Caprivi led by their chief Mukuni. When chief Mukuni died, Mulimbwa took over from him. After the death of Mulimbwa, Mayuni took over and after the death of Mayuni; Tembwe the father of the present Joseph Tembwe Mayuni of the Mafwe took over.

The Mafwe are of a heterogeneous origin and their history is difficult to trace. Africa Insight: These are one of the two groups, namely, the Muenyi, Imilangu, Ndundulu, Mbowe, Liuwa, Simaa, Makoma and Nyengo in the north and Subia, Toka, Mbukushu, Totela, Shanjo and the Fwe, in the south, who were incorporated by the Lozi. These groups still exist in the southern parts of present Zambia. The Mafwe seem to have had some original relationship with the Shanjo with whom they lived in Zambia. The Mafwe like the Totela and the Subia are found in both Namibia, mainly in the Caprivi Region and southern parts of Zambia.

During King Sipopa's reign, he appointed Litia sub-chief of Sesheke and Induna Kabende Imataa (Mamili) in 1865 as a representative in the Linyanti District (in the present Caprivi Region) while Mwambwa Siluka was appointed induna over Mashi District (in the present Caprivi Region) on the same equal statuses.

Between 1880s and 1890s Induna Siluka Mwambwa who was in charge of the Mafwe had his settlement above the confluence of the Luyana and Mashi Rivers. Siluka was appointed by Lubosi Liwanika to ensure the steady supply of labourers, tributes and as sentinels against foreign invasions. The population of Siluka's subjects as stated above was estimated at 600 souls. Siluka's administration was very cumbersome and sometimes exploitative. He expected tribute from his subjects even during poor harvests. He personally carried out inspections at Sambala (present Singalamwe) on the Mashi to ensure that tributes were brought to him, in 1905. The Mafwe worked Siluka's large fields in addition to their tributes they gave. Siluka's authority covered the areas from Lizauli to Sibbinda (Fisch 1999:56). Jaba/Chaba, Mayuni and Ingenda were subordinates of Siluka with their Kutas at Sesheke, Kaunga and Libonda at the Mashi/Kwando River (Africa Insight). The duties of the three Sub-indunas as stated above were to collect tributes for the Lozi Kings through Induna Siluka. Induna Mayuni was in charge of the Mafwe in the

Caprivi Strip at that time with his headquarters on the Mashi River. Mayuni was 35 years of age when he was appointed Sub-induna, in 1899. Mayuni's father was a Mufwe, of Siluka's family, and his mother, a Muyeyi. Mayuni is said to have been a good administrator who impressed his imperial self-imposed masters the Lozi of Liwanika (Fisch 1999:56).

The end of the Lozi Rule in the (Liyeyi, Linyanti) present Caprivi Strip marked the first German entry who on taking control over the Strip appointed Mamili as Chief of the Mafwe, Yeyi, Totela, Mbukushu and the San who lived south, west and north of the Caprivi Strip. When Simataa Kabende Mamili was appointed Chief by Streitwolf on 6 May 1909 and at the progression of the years, the compound name Bafwe/Bayeyi was used to address all the tribes in the south, north and west of the Strip. On 3 December 1971, the word Bayeyi was removed by the South African government under Proclamation R261 of 1971 by the instigations of the Subiya. The reason for the Subia to instigate this was that they had only one tribe while Mamili had a number of tribes. They advocated that Mamili should choose only one name. To this effect, Richard Temuso Muhinda Mamili on his appointment as Chief of the tribes as mentioned above listened to the Subia and changed the name by the said Proclamation hereof, thus the beginning of the Mafwe Dynasty and a false historical representation over the Yeyi and some tribes.

12. DEFINITIONS OF AREAS OF CONTENTION AND JURISDICTIONS OF THE NATIVE TRIBES

12.1 Liyeyi

Liyeyi is the former and original name of the present Caprivi Region as named by early occupants of the area, the Yeyi, as early as before 1700s before the other tribes migrated into it. Those tribes were running away from barbaric wars that broke among different kinds of nations and tribes in the neighboring regions. In about and in the years 1830 – 1840, the Makololo attacked the Aluyi people who later were named the Lozi or Barotse and conjugated them to their tribe as they had done earlier with the Yeyi and ruled them together under Makololo umbrella. Sebitwane was having his capital city situated at (Shinyeha’s kraal, later renamed Nsheshe village, and which was later renamed by the Lozi as Sangwali (present Sangwali). Sebitwane managed to put his Kololo sub-chiefs to administer the entire newborn nation, the whole area that was known as Barotseland, by having each tribe in a specific geographical area being administered by such sub-chiefs in his stead. The leader of the Kololo Sebitwane after having such weary years of fighting decided to stop the wars and live a peaceful life. He then renamed the entire area that he lived in as Linyandi (Yeyi pronunciation); Dinyanti (Sotho dialect for reeds) or as renamed by the Lozi (Linyanti).

It must be mentioned here that each tribe from Zambia entering the Liyeyi after the Yeyi, stayed in fear; as they were running away from an enemy tribe for safety and were further pushed southwards or westwards as in the cases of the Subia, the Totela, the Hambukushu, the San, and the Fwe.

The Liyeyi area covered the Andara up to Impalila Island (Makumba Island), the other name for Impalila Island. According to Mutumba Mainga, the Liyeyi was and is that area between the Chobe and the Zambezi Rivers where the Yeyi lived. During this time, the Subia, the Totela, the Hambukushu, and the Fwe were still in Zambia and were scattered and splitted by the Lozi wars. Some of the Subia went to Kazungula from Sesheke while others fled through the Liyeyi to Bechuanaland. The Totela and Hambukushu during these wars in the 1800s left Zambia into the Liyeyi. Some of the Hambukushu went further into western Bechwanaland, the southern and the eastern parts of what is today known as Kavango where they settled to this day. In western Botswana, they met the Yeyi living there already in what is known as Ngamiland.

The Yeyi people were seriously affected by the slave trade that took place in the 1840-1860s and some well-known members were captured and chained for sale. Some Yeyi brave men unchained (loosened) them and reunited them with their families. During the slave trade, only the Yeyi on the other side of the Zambezi were affected, meaning that they were the ones found in the strip. It was not heard of any other tribe being subjected to slave trade at the time.

At the coming of the Germans, they did not make any research regarding the name of the area, but hurriedly stated that the Caprivi had no local name, as the ethnic groups usually settled on both sides of a section of a river or an area that satisfied their economic needs. They found that the flooded area that the Masubiya preferred was called Kuhane (referring to the Subiya who came from Botswana and settled in the Ruhofu areas), the area of the Yeyi was Liyeyi and the Mafwe preferred the tree savannah or woodlands and their area they named Livanga, because of the many broad-leafed trees that were abound (Fish 1999:13).

From the outset one clearly sees that no mention of Itenge is referred to, as the Liyeyi, which was predominant; still stands like a rock and prolific as before. The mention of Bekuhane refers to those Subiya who came from Botswana, which are of a faction that crossed the Zambezi on fearing the severe sanguinary wars of Mange and reached Botswana in May 1879. They settled in Boswana and later came back after Sreitwolf, a German had reorganized them and allowed them to elect a chief of their own as stated earlier.

12.2 Itenge

Itenge was a name given to an area in Botswana where the other section of the Masubiya lived after fleeing the Lozi attacks in May 1879. The section of the Masubiya that lived in present western province of Zambia left Barotseland and crossed the present Caprivi and settled in Bechwanaland (present Botswana) and were led by Mwanamwali, their chief. In Botswana, other tribes were considered minorities whether many or less and were thus not allowed to keep the tribal leadership roles of their own. They tried to request the native authorities of Botswana to authorize them to have their leaders, but nothing happened to this day. Those who left Botswana came with the name Itenge to Caprivi in the 1900s and claimed that the area they lived in was called Itenge, but this was only to be

respected in their areas and cultures and had nothing to do with the Caprivi as such. This was also emphasized in the Katima Mulilo Declaration of 22-25 May 1993 that it only had a meaning to the Subiya people and not the other tribes of the Caprivi and was accepted as such to this day. Itenge was never a name for the Caprivi nor is it or can be, unless history is not honored. The other supporting document is Africa Insight 177 Vol. 26 No.2 of 1996.

The Subiya who migrated from Kazungula and Bechwanaland settled in the Caprivi and in May 1909 Streitwolf organized the Masubiya to have a chief of their own. Chikamatondo was thus inaugurated as chief of the Masubiya in the Caprivi for the first time and only controlled those Masubiya of the Caprivi and not their main stream in Zambia or the precipitates of Becuanaland. There was no mention of the Itenge territory to this end. If there was, Streitwolf or those early intruders and missionaries who entered the region would have known about the name Itenge. The present Caprivi Region was only known by the name Liyeyi before the intrusion of the Sotho of Sebitwane. Sebitwane then later renamed it Linyandi or Dinyanti or Linyanti, the name that all missionaries like Dr. David Livingstone and others who traveled throughout Africa referred to. If Itenge was known, those travelers like Sebitwane, missionaries, the Barotse Dynasty and others who came and got the Yeyi there would have made mention of that name. History writes itself and cannot be rewritten illusionary. The history of the Yeyi of Botswana who lived earlier and now, still mentions the fact that Liyeyi was their initial land before settling in Bechwanaland. The Yeyi who lived and still live in the Caprivi Strip still know that Liyeyi is the current Caprivi. If Itenge was known as the former name for Caprivi Strip, then all histories would have pointed down to it, but Liyeyi as was and is; can still be traced by all histories as the Caprivi Region which was firstly and originally occupied by the Yeyi and remains a common denominator and factor to such claim. The claim of Itenge is only referred to the area where the Subia lived in Botswana and not that Caprivi is Itenge or part thereof.

12.3 The Politics of the Caprivi and Barotseland

There have been issues that have been aired throughout this generation relating to the fact that Caprivi forms part of Barotseland. As statements are written and given to people to read and comprehend, they create different opinions that are either beneficial or damaging. It is interesting therefore that clarity be sought whether the Caprivi forms part of Barotseland?

What has not been clear about those proponents of our society who advocate the issue of Barotseland is the root of what they want to see in terms of the matter in future. We do not know how much they know about the trouble the British and the Zambian Governments before and after independence encountered relating to the issue of Barotseland and how it negatively affected the sovereignty of the state of Zambia. Barotseland has been a political thorn from the early 1950’s to the early 1960’s when Zambia got independence and thereafter. It is important to note that this Barotseland issues were bringing more problems from the time when it was named Barotse Province that even the Zambian Government saw it fit that the Barotseland moves were more of tribal concerns than national interests. In this way,

the Government of Zambia abolished anything that had to do with Barotseland as so many committees, movements, treaties, etc. were created to treat the Lozi and their King more special than the Government and other natives or ethnic groups in Zambia. At some stage, Government had to come down its knees to request from the King whether as Government they had to put in the Barotseland any program of national interest or not. It deterred development and this can be traced as compared to other provinces of Zambia today. The Western Province is the leastly developed of all the Provinces of Zambia due to the Barotseland ambitions of the past before its abolishment.

If Barotseland in Zambia itself failed and was abolished by the government of Zambia in the strongest terms it deserves, will it sustain within the minds of those Namibians who want to propel something not accommodated by the country in which it belonged, which as well caused serious state threats and then abolished by the state to secure peace, justice and collective development for all the Zambian people?

It can be learnt from this that more activities of tribal interests anywhere in this world, is one way of those proponents of tribalism, racism, patriotism, ethnicism, and other sectarian formations being entangled in sowing seeds of division, hatred and the idea that a certain tribe or race can own a region or a state. Further, it is felt that such tribal ambitions can create pogrom and skirmishes among the ethnic groups or create inter-regional conflicts. How can a single tribe or race try to own a certain region or a province of another state with its clear boundaries? How can that happen? Can Namibia own a province in South Africa by word of mouth or fiction and claim that that province belongs to Namibia without the knowledge of South Africa or Namibia as two countries? How can Namibia allow Zambia to have its own region, the Caprivi Region, allocated to Zambia by word of mouth? It is incredibly unbelievable.

Such moves we saw immediately after independence when Rehoboth and Walvis Bay were entangled in such situations. Captain Diergart wanted Rehoboth to be a republic on its own, which should not form part of Namibia, but the Namibian Government would not entertain this move. The Republic of South Africa wanted to take Walvis Bay, which is in the extreme centre of Namibia in the west, but Namibia would not allow this to happen. The last scenario is the Caprivi dismembering from the rest of Namibia by the Caprivi Liberation Movement, which idea, the Namibian Government totally fought and halted within the very possible shortest defence and security timeline and condemned it within the strongest terms it deserves in its mandate as a unitary state.

As matters stand now, Caprivi is in Namibia and is solely part of Namibia. We will now go on historical details to indicate the origins of Barotse and Barotseland as follows:

The term ‘Barotse’ means the natives of the Western Province of Zambia. Their original names are, Aluyana, Aluyi or Luyi, meaning foreigners. These are people probably related to the Lunda in northwestern Zambia, who moved south and

conquered the early inhabitants of what is now Bulozi or Barotseland. This invasion occurred prior to the mid-eighteenth century. In the mid-nineteenth century the Aluyana were conquered from the south by the Makololo or Sothos of South Africa under their warrior, Sebetwane. The Makololo renamed the Luyana as Lozi or Barotse (Grotpeter 1979:11).

The area ‘Barotseland’ is located in the south western part of the Republic of Zambia. Today, it is referred to as Western Province and was formerly (from 1964 to 1969) the Barotseland Province. Barotseland is adjacent to Angola, Zambia’s western neighbour, the border between them only being finalized in 1905. The king or Litunga of the Barotse/Lozi maintains his capital at Lealui, four hundred miles west of the ‘line of rail’, and substantially isolated from the rest of the country. Other areas, especially to the north and east were conquered by 18th - and 19th – century Lozi kings. British protection was first brought to the area as a result of the Lochner Concession, a treaty between the Barotse Litunga and the British South Africa Company.

From the time that Northern Rhodesia (present Zambia), sought independence from England in the late 1950’s and early 1960’s, the Barotse Native Government solely were in need of an independent statehood. A petition was therefore forwarded to the British Government in September 1961 by the Barotse Native Government. The British opposed subdividing the future Zambia. What the Barotse people wanted was that Barotseland be dismembered from the rest of Zambia, which dismembering was rejected by the colonizing powers. The interest of the British Government was that the independence of Zambia should include Barotseland as part of it and not where Barotseland should be a country on its own (Grotpeter 1979:21).

According to Mainga (1973:3) illustrating the map of Bulozi Proper or Ngulu, she lists the following places along the Zambezi River in western Zambia as falling under Barotseland: Silonga; Sibeta; Luena Flats; Limulunga; Lealui; Mongu; Sefula; Namushakende; Nalolo (Mafulo)[Forest Capital, now Muoyo]; Itufa; Senanga; Sitoti; Sesheke; Kalabo; and Lukona. From this least Caprivi Strip does not form part of Barotseland and according to this map the influence of the Barotse is only in Zambia.

Further, Mainga (1973:5) observes that Induna Iwake Wakumelo also came from Kalabo District. He succeeded to the Indunaship in 1946. Title of Wakumelo has been in his family for three generations (210 years), and was originally held at Libonda Khuta, but her (Mainga) informant had been transferred to Ikatulamwa Khuta. He claimed that his tribe was Lozi. It is both interesting and significant that the people claiming to be Lozi/Barotse are from Kalabo. There is sufficient evidence to prove that the nucleus of the Lozi State was founded in Kalabo District, a fact which suggests that the founders of the Lozi State lived originally in Kalabo District.

Assessing the foregoing regarding the Barotseland, we have seen that Barotseland is a Province in Zambia and the Zambian and the Namibian Governments did not have issues regarding the Caprivi as part of Barotseland during their years of self-rule or independence. How can Barotseland claim Caprivi while itself does not exist in

Zambia and which was never in its influence ever since, besides that it was conquered and colonized? We will see as we go further whether the Caprivi was part of Barotseland or not. What we know is that there are certain Namibians who are after conjugating this Region to another country outside the legal frameworks of the two states (Namibia and Zambia), OAU (AU) and the UN’s stances on boundary matters.

13. THE RULING OF THE COURT ON THE OWNERSHIP AND CUSTODIANSHIP OF THE CAPRIVI STRIP IN 1983

The claims of the Basubia and Mafwe that the Caprivi Strip belongs to them was rejected in court in 1983 based on the findings of Professor Chris Maritz of the Department of Development Studies at the Rand Afrikaans University, Johannesburg who stated that the two tribes, viz. Mafwe and Subia have no claim on the strip except those who occupied the strip earlier than the two. See attached details for this (See Budack Commission of 10 February 1982).

THE PROPOSAL FROM THE MAYEYI TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY ON THE TRIBAL JURISDICTIONS

1. The whole former Caprivi Strip with all its international recognized boundaries was formerly known as Liyeyi, meaning the land of the Yeyi people (Mainga 1973:159, Fisch 1999, Tlou & Campbel 1983, Africa Insight 177. Vol. 26. No. 2 1996).

2. Induna Sangwali was in charge of the area from Namushasha, which is the area before Ngonga. The boundary line here is the depression between Ngonga and Namushasha. Mutau began from Kapani through to Lusu. From Lusu to Masokotwani, induna Kachana controlled this land until Masokotwani. From Masokotwani to Muyako was controlled by Induna Mate. From Muyako through to Ngala and the vicinities of Siseke-sa-banyai and Ngoma was under Induna Nyata. All these indunas mentioned in the jurisdictional areas listed above are all Yeyi.

3. Based on these statements, the Mayeyi Traditional Authority and all its subjects for the sake of peace and administrative matters agree that their area of jurisdiction starts at Namushasha to Muyako areas as per maps 375- 378.

ANNEXURES

Annexture A: Caprivi Zipfel Map Nos. 374-375 indicating areas of tribal jurisdictions Annexture B: Mutumba Mainga: Bulozi under the Luyana Kings 1973 Annexture C: Katima Mulilo Declaration on National Reconciliation and Areas of Jurisdiction 22-25 May 1993 Annexture D: Africa Insight 177 Vol. 26 No.2 of 1996. Annexture E: Mayeyi Declaration of 2 August 1992 Annexture F: Map in Kurt Streitwolf- Sy Werk in Suidwes-Afrika 1899-1914 Prof. E. L. P. Stals, p. 10 Annexture G: Court Reports in the Supreme Court of South West Africa June 1983 in the matter between Josia Mutwa Moraliswani as plaintiff and Robert (Richard) Temuso Muhinda Mamili as defendant Annexture H: The Budack Commission of 10 February 1982 Annexture I: Prof Maria Fisch: The Caprivi Strip during the German colonial period, 1890 to 1914: (with a chapter on the boundary dispute up to the present) Paperback – 1999

Compiled by: Dr Vincent Ntema Sazita Mr Patrick Mufalo Limbo Dr Sitali Brian Lwendo

Date: 23 August 2015

In the early 19th century the baTswana tribe known as baTawana arrived in the Ngamiland. After the arrival, many of the baYei became serfs, or batlhanka, of the baTawana. Initially the servitude was voluntary in many cases, as it offered protection to attach oneself to a powerful household.

In Namibia, the Mayeyi were first recognised as an independent tribe in 1992; before they were covered under the Mafwe traditional authority. The seat of their khuta (royal homestead) is the settlement of Sangwali in the Judea Lyaboloma Constituency of the Zambezi Region. The current traditional chief, since 1993, is Chief Boniface Sifu. This is also the place where Batsara Batsapi, the annual cultural festival of the Mayeyi people, is conducted. This recognition (which was accompanied by that of the Mashi people), is not without political importance: the Mafwe were suspicious of the move since the Yeyi and the Mashi had begun shifting their political allegiance to SWAPO, the most powerful political party in Namibia, and traditional opponents of the Mafwe's desire for independence.

Culture

The baYei had a matrilineal succession, i.e. the inheritor of a kingdom is the son of a sister to the king.

The baYei believed in a creator god who lived among the humans. One day the god became angry with the humans for their wickedness and went to heaven. He does not interfere much in the world, except for throwing down the occasional thunderbolt. The baYei also venerate ancestor spirits.

Crops that are important for the baYei culture includes sorghum and tobacco. Maize [corn] and Sweet Potatoes especially for those people in the Okavango Delta are also grown widely.

External links

• Thaba, Atomic (27 November 2014). "Tembwe Motshidisi: Self-acclaimed Wayeyi historian". The Daily News.